1
|
Einarsdottir TS, Asgeirsdottir BB, Sigurvinsdottir R, Ullman SE, Gudmundsdottir B. Prevalence of trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms among the Icelandic population: gender and regional differences. Scand J Public Health 2023:14034948231217019. [PMID: 38153117 DOI: 10.1177/14034948231217019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
AIM The primary aim of this cross-sectional study was to provide descriptive data about the lifetime prevalence of trauma exposure with a particular focus on sexual violence and natural disasters and to assess the prevalence of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the Icelandic population. In addition, the aim was to investigate whether PTSD symptoms, trauma types and prevalence differed by gender and geographical location. METHOD A representative sample of the population between the ages of 18 and 80 years was randomly selected from the Icelandic National Registrar. The study included a total of 1766 participants consisting of 930 (52.7%) women and 836 (47.3%) men, with an overall mean age of 49.9 years (standard deviation 16.1). Participants were contacted by phone and asked questions from the Lifetime Events Checklist (LEC-5) to assess lifetime exposure to traumatic events. Individuals who had experienced traumatic events completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) to assess PTSD symptoms. RESULTS Exposure to trauma is common among the Icelandic population, with 84.3% of the participants experiencing at least one kind of trauma. Of those exposed to trauma, 10.5% fulfilled criteria indicating a higher risk of PTSD. The prevalence of sexual violence and other unwanted sexual experiences was relatively high (16.2% and 24.4%, respectively) compared with other national studies. Women were almost four times more likely than men to have been exposed to sexual violence (24.9% vs 6.4%), and were more likely to have been exposed to other unwanted sexual experience (35.1% vs 12.4%, respectively). Exposure to natural disasters is frequent but with great geographical variation. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the high prevalence of trauma in Iceland, revealing significant gender disparities in sexual violence and geographical variations in natural disaster exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sarah E Ullman
- Criminology, Law and Justice Faculty, University of Illinois, USA
| | - Berglind Gudmundsdottir
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland and Landspitali University Hospital of Iceland, Iceland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gómez-Casillas A, van Damme M, Permanyer I. Women's and Men's Status: Revisiting the Relationship Between Gender Equality and Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Europe. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2023:8862605231158760. [PMID: 36915262 DOI: 10.1177/08862605231158760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The first European Union Survey on Violence against Women (EU-VAW) released in 2014 revealed the unexpected result indicating that the world's most egalitarian countries have relatively high rates of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women (IPVAW). This phenomenon, referred to as the "Nordic Paradox," revived a heated, intermittently ongoing discussion dating back four decades where several competing hypotheses about the relationship between gender inequality and IPVAW have been proposed, but no consensus has been reached. The main aim of this paper is to revisit the most important of such hypotheses proposed in the last four decades, while proposing a new one that could potentially throw some light on understanding the "Nordic Paradox." Multilevel linear regression models are estimated using data from the EU-VAW survey conducted in 2012, and an alternative operationalization of the Gender Equality Index (GEI) (our measure of gender equality). We did not find any significant effect of gender equality on IPVAW repetition. However, we found that higher country-level status of women and men go together with less IPVAW, with a larger effect of women's status in economic domains compared to the impact of men's economic status, and a larger effect of men's overall status. These findings support the Marxist feminist hypothesis, stating that women's absolute status in the economic and labor domain is critical in lessening IPVAW, as women's real and potential access to resources is key for leaving a violent relationship. At the same time, our results support the "male privilege protection" hypothesis, which states that gains in women's status in certain domains-such as in the economic sphere considering our results for the European Union-would not suppose a threat to men, allowing ameliorative effects. In contrast, if the overall status of men is threatened, backlash effects would be triggered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Maike van Damme
- Centre d'Estudis Demogràfics, (CED-CERCA), UAB, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
| | - Iñaki Permanyer
- Centre d'Estudis Demogràfics, (CED-CERCA), UAB, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wemrell M. Stories of Backlash in Interviews With Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Sweden. Violence Against Women 2023; 29:154-184. [PMID: 35816435 PMCID: PMC9827489 DOI: 10.1177/10778012221088312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Despite high gender equality ratings, Sweden shows a high prevalence of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW). Suggested factors underlying this apparent paradox include backlash effects against women's empowerment. This study explores stories of backlash in interviews with 23 IPVAW survivors in Sweden. Thematic analysis identified categories of narrative segments referring to phenomena provoking violence; the victims' resources, agency, breaking with gender norms and resistance, and the partner's feelings of subordination, while case-centered narrative analysis pointed to divergences between how these categories appear in the stories. The study underscores the complexity of links between gender (in)equality and IPVAW in Sweden.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Wemrell
- Unit for Social Epidemiology, Medical Faculty,
Lund
University, Lund, Sweden,Department of Gender Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
Lund
University, Lund, Sweden,Maria Wemrell, Unit for Social
Epidemiology, Lund University, Jan Waldenströms gata 35, S-205 02 Malmö,
Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lausi G, Barchielli B, Burrai J, Giannini AM, Cricenti C. Italian Validation of the Scale of Psychological Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence (EAPA-P). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182312717. [PMID: 34886443 PMCID: PMC8657216 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182312717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Psychological and emotional forms of violence often represent a danger alarm and an important risk factor for other forms of intimate partner violence (IPV). Measuring psychological violence raises several issues of conceptualization and definition, which lead to the development of several assessment instruments; among them, the Scale of Psychological Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence (EAPA-P) showed good psychometric proprieties in a Spanish population and is used to identify which strategies are acted out to engage in psychological violence. The aim of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Italian version of EAPA-P among a group of Italian-speaking women (N = 343), thus evaluating its psychometric characteristics. Based on the English translation of the original Spanish version, an 11-item form of the EAPA-P was obtained, validity has been assessed through measures of emotion dysregulation, interpersonal guilt, conflict among partners and depression, anxiety, and stress symptomatology. Moreover, differences among groups were conducted to identify the capacity of the Italian version of EAPA-P to discriminate among women reporting experiencing psychological violence (N = 179), and who don't (N = 150). Results showed an excellent internal validity, good correlations, and a good discriminatory ability of the scale. Strengths, limitations, and practical implications of the study have been discussed according to recent literature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Lausi
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy; (J.B.); (A.M.G.); (C.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-06-49917534
| | - Benedetta Barchielli
- Department of Dynamic, Clinical Psychology and Health, Sapienza University of Rome, Via degli Apuli, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Jessica Burrai
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy; (J.B.); (A.M.G.); (C.C.)
| | - Anna Maria Giannini
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy; (J.B.); (A.M.G.); (C.C.)
| | - Clarissa Cricenti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy; (J.B.); (A.M.G.); (C.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Castro A, Lila M, Gracia E, Wemrell M. Professionals' Views on the Comparatively Low Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Spain. Violence Against Women 2021; 28:1565-1586. [PMID: 34225514 DOI: 10.1177/10778012211021106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to understand the reasons why Spain has one of the lowest prevalence rates of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) in the European Union. Using a qualitative and inductive research approach, a total of five focus groups (n = 19) and 10 unstructured interviews with key informants were conducted. Three main categories were identified as possible explanations of the relatively low prevalence of IPVAW in Spain: law and policy, social awareness, and cultural patterns. Lessons learned and implications to improve future macrolevel intervention and prevention strategies are discussed.
Collapse
|
6
|
Humbert AL, Strid S, Hearn J, Balkmar D. Undoing the 'Nordic Paradox': Factors affecting rates of disclosed violence against women across the EU. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249693. [PMID: 33951041 PMCID: PMC8099076 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring violence against women raises methodological questions, as well as the wider question of how to understand violence and locate it in relation to a societal context. This is all the more relevant given that measurement of violence against women in the EU has made an interesting phenomenon apparent, the so-called 'Nordic Paradox', whereby prevalence is higher in more gender equal countries. This article examines this phenomenon by exploring a range of factors-methodological, demographic and societal-to contextualise disclosed levels of violence. The analysis makes use of a multilevel analytic approach to take into account how macro and micro levels contribute to the prevalence of violence. The intercepts are then used to illustrate how taking these into account might provide an alternative ranking of levels of violence against women in EU countries. The results show that the 'Nordic Paradox' disappears-and can be undone-when factors at individual and country levels are considered. We conclude that the 'Nordic Paradox' cannot be understood independently from a wider pattern of violence in society, and should be seen as connected and co-constituted in specific formations, domains or regimes of violence. Our results show that the use of multi-level models can provide new insights into the factors that may be related to disclosed prevalence of violence against women. This can generate a better understanding of how violence against women functions as a system, and in turn inform better policy responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Laure Humbert
- Centre for Diversity Policy Research and Practice, Oxford Brookes Business School, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sofia Strid
- Division of Gender Studies and Sociology, School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Jeff Hearn
- Division of Gender Studies and Sociology, School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- Department of Management and Organisation, Hanken School of Economics, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom
- Institute for Social and Health Sciences, University of South Africa, Lenasia, Republic of South Africa
| | - Dag Balkmar
- Division of Gender Studies and Sociology, School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gomez-Casillas A, Lozano M, Rentería E. Expected years lived with intimate partner violence: a new approach for public health. Glob Health Action 2021; 14:1976442. [PMID: 34542024 PMCID: PMC8462847 DOI: 10.1080/16549716.2021.1976442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intimate Partner Violence against women (IPV) is a major public health problem. However, mainstream indicators used in public health are not designed to fully capture the pervasive and enduring impact of IPV. OBJECTIVE We propose a new indicator that considers the burden of IPV in women during their middle life years, estimating the number of years that women are expected to live under IPV, and provide estimates for 151 countries. METHODS Prevalence rates of physical and sexual IPV for a given year are taken from the Global Database on the Prevalence of Violence Against Women. Annual period life tables are constructed using data from the World Population Prospects. We use Sullivan's method to estimate partial life expectancy between the ages of 15 and 49 lived suffering from physical and sexual IPV in each country. The final indicator measures the number of years 15 to 49-year-old women are expected to live with IPV (YLIPV) in a given year. RESULTS Based on data from surveys representative of 92.0% of the global female population aged between 15 to 49, we find that ever-partnered women aged between 15 to 49 are expected to live 4.1 years (Low Bound: 2.3; Upper Bound: 7.1) suffering from violence during this age range. By regions, women are expected to suffer from IPV during 6.0 years (3.7-9.2) in Africa; 4.3 years (2.4-7.8) in Asia; 3.4 years (2.1-5.6) in Oceania; 2.6 years (1.5-4.2) in the Americas; and 1.7 years (0.9-3.1) in Europe. CONCLUSIONS YLIPV is a useful indicator to display the burden of IPV. Similarly to the mainstream public health indicators rationale, YLIPV accounts for the time women are exposed to IPV during their lifespan and it is standardized by age exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariona Lozano
- Centre d’Estudis Demogràfics (CED-CERCA), UAB, Cerdanyola Del Vallès, Spain
| | - Elisenda Rentería
- Centre d’Estudis Demogràfics (CED-CERCA), UAB, Cerdanyola Del Vallès, Spain
| |
Collapse
|