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Li Z, Jia Z, Li J, Kang D, Li M, Ma S, Cheng Q, Shen H, Sun L. Development of a 45K pepper GBTS liquid-phase gene chip and its application in genome-wide association studies. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1405190. [PMID: 38984163 PMCID: PMC11231373 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1405190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is a vegetable that is cultivated globally and has undergone extensive domestication, leading to a significant diversification in its agronomic traits. With the advancement of genomics in pepper and the reduction in sequencing costs, the high-throughput detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and small insertions-deletions (indels) has become increasingly critical for analyzing pepper germplasms and improving breeding programs. As a result, there is a pressing need for a cost-effective, high-throughput, and versatile technique suitable for both foreground and background selection in pepper breeding. Methods In the present study, Python-based web scraping scripts were utilized to systematically extract data from published literatures and relevant sequence databases focusing on pepper genomes. Subsequent to data extraction, SNPs and indels were meticulously identified and filtered. This process culminated in the delineation of core polymorphic sites, which were instrumental in the development of specific probes. Following this, comprehensive phenotypic and genotypic analyses were conducted on a diverse collection of 420 pepper germplasms. Concurrently, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted to elucidate the genetic determinants of helical fruit shape in peppers. Results In this study, a 45K pepper Genotyping-By-Target-Sequencing (GBTS) liquid-phase gene chip was developed on the GenoBaits platform. This chip is composed of 45,389 probes, of which 42,535 are derived from core polymorphic sites (CPS) in the background genetic landscape, while 2,854 are associated with foreground agronomic traits, spanning across 43 traits. The CPS probes are spaced at an average interval of 68 Kb. We have assessed the performance of this chip on 420 pepper germplasms, with successful capture of target DNA fragments by 45,387 probes. Furthermore, the probe capture ratio surpassed 70% in 410 of the 420 germplasms tested. Using this chip, we have efficiently genotyped 273 germplasms for spiciness levels and elucidated the genetic relationships among 410 pepper germplasms. Our results allowed for precise clustering of sister lines and C. chinense germplasms. In addition, through a GWAS for helical fruit shape, we identified three quantitative trait loci (QTLs): heli2.1, heli11.1, and heli11.2. Within the heli11.1 QTL, a gene encoding the tubulin alpha chain was identified, suggesting its potential role in the helical growth pattern of pepper fruits. Discussion In summary, the 45K pepper GBTS liquid-phase gene chip offers robust detection of polymorphic sites and is a promising tool for advancing research into pepper germplasm and the breeding of new pepper varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixiong Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiqi Jia
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jisuo Li
- Beijing Bona Oriental Agricultural Technology Development Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Dongmu Kang
- Beijing Bona Oriental Agricultural Technology Development Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Mingxuan Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shijie Ma
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Cheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Huolin Shen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Liang Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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Wang Y, Zhang X, Yang J, Chen B, Zhang J, Li W, Du H, Geng S. Optimized Pepper Target SNP-Seq Applied in Population Structure and Genetic Diversity Analysis of 496 Pepper ( Capsicum spp.) Lines. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:214. [PMID: 38397204 PMCID: PMC10887817 DOI: 10.3390/genes15020214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Peppers are a major vegetable crop worldwide. With the completion of additional genome assemblies, a multitude of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can be utilized for population structure and genetic diversity analysis. In this study, we used target SNP-sequencing as a new high-throughput sequencing technology, screening out 425 perfect SNPs for analyzing the genetic diversity and population structure among 496 pepper lines from five pepper species in China and abroad. The perfect SNP panel exhibited commendable discriminative ability, as indicated by the average values of polymorphism information content, observed heterozygosity, minor allele frequency, and genetic diversity, which were 0.346, 0.011, 0.371, and 0.449, respectively. Based on phylogenetic, population structure, and principal component analyses, 484 C. annuum lines were divided into four subpopulations according to the shape of fruit: blocky fruit, wide-horn fruit, narrow-horn fruit, and linear fruit. These subpopulations displayed clear clustering with minimal or no overlap. Moreover, F statistic (Fst) analysis revealed considerable distinctions among these subpopulations. Additionally, we established a set of 47 core SNPs that could effectively differentiate among all pepper lines. This core SNP set could precisely classify the C. annuum lines into four distinct fruit-shape groups. The blocky and narrow-horn fruit subpopulations displayed the lowest and highest genetic diversity, respectively. This study highlights the importance of fruit shape as a crucial trait in pepper breeding. Moreover, this work indicates the immense potential of optimized target SNP technology in the addition of foreground markers of important traits to improve molecular breeding efficiency, and demonstrates its broad application prospects in the genetic analysis and variety identification of peppers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (Y.W.); (B.C.)
| | - Xiaofen Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (X.Z.); (J.Y.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jingjing Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (X.Z.); (J.Y.); (J.Z.)
| | - Bin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (Y.W.); (B.C.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Vegetable Germplasms Improvement, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (X.Z.); (J.Y.); (J.Z.)
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Horticultural Crops (North China), Beijing 100097, China
| | - Wenyue Li
- Henan OULAND Seed Industry Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450003, China;
| | - Heshan Du
- National Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (X.Z.); (J.Y.); (J.Z.)
| | - Sansheng Geng
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Beijing Vegetable Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China; (Y.W.); (B.C.)
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Cheng Q, He Y, Lu Q, Wang H, Liu S, Liu J, Liu M, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Sun L, Shen H. Mapping of the AgWp1 gene for the white petiole in celery (Apium graveolens L.). PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 327:111563. [PMID: 36509245 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Celery (Apium graveolens L.) is one of the most popular leafy vegetables worldwide. The main edible parts of celery are the leaf blade and especially the petiole, which typically has a white, green and red color. To date, there are very few reports about the inheritance and gene cloning of celery petiole color. In this study, bulked segregant analysis-sequencing (BSA-Seq) and fine mapping were conducted to delimit the white petiole (wp1) loci into a 668.5-kb region on Chr04. In this region, AgWp1 is a homolog of a DAG protein in Antirrhinum majus and a MORF9 protein in Arabidopsis, and both proteins are involved in chloroplast development. Sequencing alignment shows that there is a 27-bp insertion in the 3'-utr region in AgWp1 in the white petiole. Gene expression analysis indicated that the expression level of AgWp1 in the green petiole was much higher than that in the white petiole. Further cosegregation revealed that the 27-bp insertion was completely cosegregated with the petiole color in 45 observed celery varieties. Therefore, AgWp1 was considered to be the candidate gene controlling the white petiole in celery. Our results could not only improve the efficiency and accuracy of celery breeding but also help in understanding the mechanism of chlorophyll synthesis and chloroplast development in celery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yujiao He
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qiaohua Lu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Haoran Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Sujun Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jinkui Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Mengmeng Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yingxue Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yihao Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Liang Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Huolin Shen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Dong J, Hu F, Guan W, Yuan F, Lai Z, Zhong J, Liu J, Wu Z, Cheng J, Hu K. A 163-bp insertion in the Capana10g000198 encoding a MYB transcription factor causes male sterility in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 113:521-535. [PMID: 36534067 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Male sterility provides an efficient approach for commercial exploitation of heterosis. Despite more than 20 genic male sterile (GMS) mutants documented in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), only two causal genes have been successfully identified. Here, a novel spontaneous recessive GMS mutant, designated msc-3, is identified and characterized at both phenotypic and histological levels. Pollen abortion of msc-3 mutant may be due to the delayed tapetum degradation, leading to the non-degeneration of tetrads callosic wall. Then, a modified MutMap method and molecular marker linkage analysis were employed to fine mapping the msc-3 locus, which was delimited to the ~139.91-kb region harboring 10 annotated genes. Gene expression and structure variation analyses indicate the Capana10g000198, encoding a R2R3-MYB transcription factor, is the best candidate gene for the msc-3 locus. Expression profiling analysis shows the Capana10g000198 is an anther-specific gene, and a 163-bp insertion in the Capana10g000198 is highly correlated with the male sterile (MS) phenotype. Additionally, downregulation of Capana10g000198 in male fertile plants through virus-induced gene silencing resulted in male sterility. Finally, possible regulatory relationships of the msc-3 gene with the other two reported pepper GMS genes, msc-1 and msc-2, have been studied, and comparative transcriptome analysis reveals the expression of 16 GMS homologs are significantly downregulated in the MS anthers. Overall, our results reveal that Capana10g000198 is the causal gene underlying the msc-3 locus, providing important theoretical clues and basis for further in-depth study on the regulatory mechanisms of pollen development in pepper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichi Dong
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Fang Hu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation of Food and Medicinal Resources in Northern Region, Henry Fok School of Biology and Agricultural, Shaoguan University, Shaoguan, 512023, Guangdong, China
| | - Wendong Guan
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Fanchong Yuan
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Zepei Lai
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Jian Zhong
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Jia Liu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiming Wu
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, 510225, China
| | - Jiaowen Cheng
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Kailin Hu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University/Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetables Engineering Research Center, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
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Cheng Z, Song W, Zhang X. Genic male and female sterility in vegetable crops. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2022; 10:uhac232. [PMID: 36643746 PMCID: PMC9832880 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhac232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Vegetable crops are greatly appreciated for their beneficial nutritional and health components. Hybrid seeds are widely used in vegetable crops for advantages such as high yield and improved resistance, which require the participation of male (stamen) and female (pistil) reproductive organs. Male- or female-sterile plants are commonly used for production of hybrid seeds or seedless fruits in vegetables. In this review we will focus on the types of genic male sterility and factors affecting female fertility, summarize typical gene function and research progress related to reproductive organ identity and sporophyte and gametophyte development in vegetable crops [mainly tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus)], and discuss the research trends and application perspectives of the sterile trait in vegetable breeding and hybrid production, in order to provide a reference for fertility-related germplasm innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihua Cheng
- State Key Laboratories of Agrobiotechnology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, MOE Joint Laboratory for International Cooperation in Crop Molecular Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Weiyuan Song
- State Key Laboratories of Agrobiotechnology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, MOE Joint Laboratory for International Cooperation in Crop Molecular Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Xiaolan Zhang
- State Key Laboratories of Agrobiotechnology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, MOE Joint Laboratory for International Cooperation in Crop Molecular Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
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Cheng Q, Sun L, Qiao H, Li Z, Li M, Cui X, Li W, Liu S, Wang H, Yang W, Shen H. Loci underlying leaf agronomic traits identified by re-sequencing celery accessions based on an assembled genome. iScience 2022; 25:104565. [PMID: 35784787 PMCID: PMC9240803 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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Cheng Q, Wang P, Li T, Liu J, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Sun L, Shen H. Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence and Identification of a Candidate Gene Responsible for Cytoplasmic Male Sterility in Celery ( Apium graveolens L.). Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168584. [PMID: 34445290 PMCID: PMC8395238 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Celery (Apium graveolens L.) is an important leafy vegetable worldwide. The development of F1 hybrids in celery is highly dependent on cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) because emasculation is difficult. In this study, we first report a celery CMS, which was found in a high-generation inbred line population of the Chinese celery “tanzhixiangqin”. Comparative analysis, following sequencing and assembly of the complete mitochondrial genome sequences for this celery CMS line and its maintainer line, revealed that there are 21 unique regions in the celery CMS line and these unique regions contain 15 ORFs. Among these ORFs, only orf768a is a chimeric gene, consisting of 1497 bp sequences of the cox1 gene and 810 bp unidentified sequences located in the unique region, and the predicted protein product of orf768a possesses 11 transmembrane domains. In summary, the results of this study indicate that orf768a is likely to be a strong candidate gene for CMS induction in celery. In addition, orf768a can be a co-segregate marker, which can be used to screen CMS in celery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Peng Wang
- Institute of Vegetable Research, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China;
| | - Tiantian Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Jinkui Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Yingxue Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Yihao Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Liang Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
| | - Huolin Shen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (Q.C.); (T.L.); (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (L.S.)
- Correspondence:
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