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Aguchem RN, Okagu IU, Okorigwe EM, Uzoechina JO, Nnemolisa SC, Ezeorba TPC. Role of CETP, PCSK-9, and CYP7-alpha in cholesterol metabolism: Potential targets for natural products in managing hypercholesterolemia. Life Sci 2024; 351:122823. [PMID: 38866219 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a leading cause of mortality worldwide, primarily affecting the heart and blood vessels, with atherosclerosis being a major contributing factor to their onset. Epidemiological and clinical studies have linked high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) emanating from distorted cholesterol homeostasis as its major predisposing factor. Cholesterol homeostasis, which involves maintaining the balance in body cholesterol level, is mediated by several proteins or receptors, transcription factors, and even genes, regulating cholesterol influx (through dietary intake or de novo synthesis) and efflux (by their conversion to bile acids). Previous knowledge about CVDs management has evolved around modulating these receptors' activities through synthetic small molecules/antibodies, with limited interest in natural products. The central roles of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), and cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily A member 1 (CYP7A1), among other proteins or receptors, have fostered growing scientific interests in understanding more on their regulatory activities and potential as drug targets. We present up-to-date knowledge on the contributions of CETP, PCSK9, and CYP7A1 toward CVDs, highlighting the clinical successes and failures of small molecules/antibodies to modulate their activities. In recommendation for a new direction to improve cardiovascular health, we have presented recent findings on natural products (including functional food, plant extracts, phytochemicals, bioactive peptides, and therapeutic carbohydrates) that also modulate the activities of CETP, PCSK-9, and CYP7A1, and emphasized the need for more research efforts redirected toward unraveling more on natural products potentials even at clinical trial level for CVD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Ngozi Aguchem
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria
| | - Innocent Uzochukwu Okagu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria
| | - Ekezie Matthew Okorigwe
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, University of Notre Dame, 46556 Notre Dame, IN, United States
| | - Jude Obiorah Uzoechina
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1068 Xueyuan Avenue, Shenzhen University Town, Shenzhen, PR China
| | | | - Timothy Prince Chidike Ezeorba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Environmental Health and Risk Management, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
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Survey of Approaches for Investigation of Atherosclerosis In Vivo. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2022; 2419:57-72. [PMID: 35237958 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1924-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Although in vitro model systems are useful for investigation of atherosclerosis-associated processes, they represent simplification of complex events that occur in vivo, which involve interactions between many different cell types together with their environment. The use of animal model systems is important for more in-depth insights of the molecular mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis and for identifying potential targets for agents that can prevent plaque formation and even reverse existing disease. This chapter will provide a survey of such animal models and associated techniques that are routinely used for research of atherosclerosis in vivo.
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Rogula S, Błażejowska E, Gąsecka A, Szarpak Ł, Jaguszewski MJ, Mazurek T, Filipiak KJ. Inclisiran-Silencing the Cholesterol, Speaking up the Prognosis. J Clin Med 2021; 10:2467. [PMID: 34199468 PMCID: PMC8199585 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10112467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The reduction of circulating low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) is a primary target in cardiovascular risk reduction due to its well-established benefits in terms of decreased mortality. Despite the use of statin therapy, 10%-20% of high- and very-high-risk patients do not reach their LDL-C targets. There is an urgent need for improved strategies to manage dyslipidemia, especially among patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, but also in patients with established cardiovascular disease who fail to achieve LDL goals despite combined statin, ezetimibe, and PCSK9 inhibitor (PCSK9i) therapy. Inclisiran is a disruptive, first-in-class small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutic developed for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia that inhibits proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) synthesis, thereby upregulating the number of LDL receptors on the hepatocytes, thus lowering the plasma LDL-C concentration. Inclisiran decreases the LDL-C levels by over 50% with one dose every 6 months, making it a simple and well-tolerated treatment strategy. In this review, we summarize the general information regarding (i) the role of LDL-C in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, (ii) data regarding the role of PCSK9 in cholesterol metabolism, (iii) pleiotropic effects of PCSK9, and (iv) the effects of PCSK9 silencing. In addition, we focus on inclisiran, in terms of its (i) mechanism of action, (ii) biological efficacy and safety, (iii) results from the ORION trials, (iv) benefits of its combination with statins, and (v) its potential future role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwester Rogula
- 1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (S.R.); (E.B.); (T.M.); (K.J.F.)
| | - Ewelina Błażejowska
- 1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (S.R.); (E.B.); (T.M.); (K.J.F.)
| | - Aleksandra Gąsecka
- 1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (S.R.); (E.B.); (T.M.); (K.J.F.)
| | - Łukasz Szarpak
- Maria Sklodowska-Curie Białystok Oncology Centre, Ogrodowa 12, 15-027 Białystok, Poland;
- Maria Sklodowska-Curie Medical Academy in Warsaw, Solidarności 12, 03-411 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Milosz J. Jaguszewski
- 1st Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Dębinki 7, 80-211 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Tomasz Mazurek
- 1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (S.R.); (E.B.); (T.M.); (K.J.F.)
| | - Krzysztof J. Filipiak
- 1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (S.R.); (E.B.); (T.M.); (K.J.F.)
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Harbour V, Casillas C, Siddiqui Z, Sarkar B, Sanyal S, Nguyen P, Kim KK, Roy A, Iglesias-Montoro P, Patel S, Podlaski F, Tolias P, Windsor W, Kumar V. Regulation of Lipoprotein Homeostasis by Self-Assembling Peptides. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:8978-8988. [PMID: 35019574 PMCID: PMC10790182 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
High levels of serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol contribute to atherosclerosis, a key risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. PCSK9 is a circulatory enzyme that downregulates expression of hepatic LDL receptors, concomitantly increasing serum LDL-C. This work investigates a small, self-assembling peptide, EPep2-8, as a peptide inhibitor of PCSK9. EPep2-8 is a multidomain peptide comprising a self-assembling domain, E2, conjugated to a bioactive domain, Pep2-8, previously shown to inhibit PCSK9. The E2 domain facilitates self-assembly of EPep2-8 into long, nanofibrous polymers with an underlying supramolecular β-sheet secondary structure. Intermolecular interactions between nanofibers drive EPep2-8 to form a thixotropic and cytocompatible hydrogel in aqueous and charge-neutral solutions. These properties enable EPep2-8 to be delivered as an in situ depot for regulation of lipoprotein homeostasis. In surface plasmon resonance studies, EPep2-8 bound specifically to PCSK9 with an apparent, noncovalent, and irreversible dissociation, significantly improving the binding affinity of Pep2-8 alone (KD = 667 ± 48 nM). Increased binding affinity of EPep2-8 is primarily due to the superstoichiometric interaction of the peptide with PCSK9. Promisingly, EPep2-8 retains bioactivity in vitro, engendering dose-dependent uptake of LDL-C in hepatocytes. This mechanism of self-assembly on a target site may be a simple method to improve the affinity of peptide inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Harbour
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Candice Casillas
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, United States
| | - Zain Siddiqui
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Biplab Sarkar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Sreya Sanyal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Peter Nguyen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Ka Kyung Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Abhishek Roy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Patricia Iglesias-Montoro
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Saloni Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Frank Podlaski
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, United States
| | - Peter Tolias
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, United States
| | - William Windsor
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, United States
| | - Vivek Kumar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Statins are the most evidence-based therapy to target LDL-C to reduce atherosclerotic events. Yet, many people are unable to achieve adequate reduction in this key atherogenic factor. Moreover, residual risk of cardiovascular events may persist even after "optimal" LDL-C due to elevations in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Therefore, additional therapies beyond statins are needed, particularly in patients with diabetes. RECENT FINDINGS Clinical trials with ezetimibe and PCSK9 inhibitors have reported further reductions in cardiovascular events, beyond statins. The latter are particularly effective in lowering LDL-cholesterol and in reducing event rates. However, they are not effective in lowering triglycerides. Currently available fibrates and niacin have not proven effective in combination with statins in clinical trials, while the top line results of the REDUCE-IT trial with EPA, a pure omega-3 fatty acid, reporting 25% relative risk reduction in primary endpoints are of great interest. Recently approved agents have the promise to improve cardiovascular outcomes beyond statins. Many novel drugs in development have the potential to further improve prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om Ganda
- Adult Diabetes and Clinical Research, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, 1 Joslin Place, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
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Lee K, Jang B, Lee YR, Suh EY, Yoo JS, Lee MJ, Lee JY, Lee H. The cutting-edge technologies of siRNA delivery and their application in clinical trials. Arch Pharm Res 2018; 41:867-874. [PMID: 30136248 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-018-1069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
siRNA therapeutics allows precise regulation of disease specific gene expression to treat various diseases. Although gene silencing approaches using siRNA therapeutics shows some promising results in the treatment of gene-related diseases, the practical applications has been limited by problems such as inefficient in vivo delivery to target cells and nonspecific immune responses after systemic or local administration. To overcome these issues, various in vivo delivery platforms have been introduced. Here we provide an overview for three different platform technologies for the in vivo delivery of therapeutic siRNAs (siRNA-GalNAc conjugate, SAMiRNA technology, and LNP-based delivery method) and their applications in the treatment of various diseases. In addition, a brief introduction to some rare diseases and mechanisms of siRNA therapeutics-mediated treatment is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuri Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Bora Jang
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - You-Ri Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Young Suh
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Seon Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Jin Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo-Young Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyukjin Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea.
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Sugiyama K, Saisho Y. Management of Dyslipidemia in Type 2 Diabetes: Recent Advances in Nonstatin Treatment. Diseases 2018; 6:E44. [PMID: 29794992 PMCID: PMC6023493 DOI: 10.3390/diseases6020044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dyslipidemia is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), which is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Statins have played a crucial role in its management, but residual risk remains since many patients cannot achieve their desired low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level and up to 20% of patients are statin-intolerant, experiencing adverse events perceived to be caused by statins, most commonly muscle symptoms. Recently, great advances have been made in nonstatin treatment with ezetimibe, a cholesterol absorption inhibitor, and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), all showing a proven benefit with an excellent safety profile in cardiovascular outcome trials. This review summarizes the key aspects and the evolving role of these agents in the management of dyslipidemia in patients with T2DM, along with a brief introduction of novel drugs currently in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutoshi Sugiyama
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Yoshifumi Saisho
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
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Moss JWE, Williams JO, Ramji DP. Nutraceuticals as therapeutic agents for atherosclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:1562-1572. [PMID: 29454074 PMCID: PMC5906642 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disorder of medium and large arteries and an underlying cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD), is responsible for a third of all global deaths. Current treatments for CVD, such as optimized statin therapy, are associated with considerable residual risk and several side effects in some patients. The outcome of research on the identification of alternative pharmaceutical agents for the treatment of CVD has been relatively disappointing with many promising leads failing at the clinical level. Nutraceuticals, products from food sources with health benefits beyond their nutritional value, represent promising agents in the prevention of CVD or as an add-on therapy with current treatments. This review will highlight the potential of several nutraceuticals, including polyunsaturated fatty acids, flavonoids and other polyphenols, as anti-CVD therapies based on clinical and pre-clinical mechanism-based studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe W E Moss
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Jessica O Williams
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Dipak P Ramji
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK.
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Griffith JF, Hu M, Yeung DKW, Guo P, Lam SL, Xiao F, Wang D, Tomlinson B. Achilles Tendon Xanthomas: Fat-Water Separation at Baseline and after Treatment. Radiology 2017; 285:876-884. [PMID: 28825891 DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2017161435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the fat-water content of Achilles tendon xanthomas at baseline and after treatment and to compare this assessment with that of ultrasonography (US) and other magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-based parameters. Materials and Methods Forty-eight Achilles tendons with clinically apparent xanthomas in 24 patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) (six men, 18 women; mean age ± standard deviation, 58 years ± 9) were compared with 20 Achilles tendons in 10 control subjects without FH (two men, eight women; mean age, 62 years ± 7). US imaging measurements (thickness, width, cross-sectional area, echogenicity) and 3.0-T MR imaging measurements (thickness, width, cross-sectional area, volume, and fat-water separation) of the Achilles tendons were obtained at baseline and in patients with FH at 3 and 6 months after treatment with probucol, a cholesterol-lowering agent. Nonparametric tests compared baseline data, whereas repeated-measures analyses assessed treatment change. Results At baseline, all US and MR imaging-based parameters were higher in xanthoma tendons compared with those in control tendons (all P < .05). The mean relative water content per unit volume was 71% higher (42.0% ± 6.7) in xanthoma tendons than in control tendons (24.5% 6 5.8; P < .001). After 6 months of cholesterol-lowering treatment, only MR imaging measurements of tendon volume (P = .007), relative fat (P = .041), and relative water content (P < .001) showed significant changes. As relative tendon fat content decreased with treatment, relative water content increased. Conclusion Most of the enlargement of Achilles tendon xanthomas is due to an increase in water content rather than fat. For depicting treatment change, relative tendon water content was the most sensitive parameter, followed by tendon volume and relative tendon fat content. © RSNA, 2017 Online supplemental material is available for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Griffith
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Miao Hu
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - David K W Yeung
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Pei Guo
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Sik Lok Lam
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Fan Xiao
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Defeng Wang
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Brian Tomlinson
- From the Departments of Imaging & Interventional Radiology (J.F.G., D.K.W.Y., F.X., D.W.), Medicine & Therapeutics (M.H., B.T.), and Chemistry (P.G., S.L.L.), Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
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Mascitelli L, Goldstein MR. PCSK9 inhibition and the global diabetes epidemic. Diabetologia 2017; 60:751-752. [PMID: 28132099 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4217-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Mascitelli
- Comando Brigata Alpina "Julia"/Multinational Land Force, Medical Service, 8 Via S. Agostino, Udine, 33100, Italy.
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