Suppression of lysyl oxidase gene expression by methylation in pelvic organ prolapse

Lysyl oxidase impacts disease outcomes and correlates with global DNA hypomethylation in esophageal cancer

Abnormal function of human body enzymes and epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation have been shown to lead to human carcinogenesis. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) enzyme has attracted attention due to its involvement in tumor progression in various cancers. The purpose of this study was to clarify the clinical importance of LOX expression and its epigenetic regulation in the pathogenesis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Using a database of 284 ESCCs, we examined LOX expression and its prognostic characteristics. The functional role of LOX was assessed by in vitro growth, migration, and invasion assays. The relationship between LOX expression, global DNA hypomethylation (ie, LINE‐1 methylation), and LOX promoter methylation was evaluated by using mRNA expression arrays and pyrosequencing technology. High LOX expression cases had a significantly shorter overall survival and cancer‐specific survival (log‐rank, P < .001). The prognostic effect of LOX expression was not significantly modified by other clinical variables. Silencing and enzymatic inhibition of LOX suppressed growth and reduced the invasion and migration ability of ESCC cell lines along with the downregulation of AKT and MMP2. An integrated gene analysis in tissues and cell lines revealed that LOX was the most highly upregulated gene in LINE‐1 hypomethylated tumors. In vitro, LOX expression was upregulated following DNA demethylation. LOX promoter methylation was not associated with LOX expression. Conclusively LOX expression was associated with poor prognosis in ESCC and was regulated epigenetically by genome‐wide hypomethylation. It could serve as a prognostic biomarker in ESCC patients, and therapeutically targeting LOX could reverse the progression of esophageal cancer.

Genome‑wide DNA methylation analysis of uterosacral ligaments in women with pelvic organ prolapse

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is an increasingly serious health problem that impairs quality of life and is caused by multiple additive genetic and environmental factors. As the uterosacral ligaments (ULs) provide primary support for the pelvic organs, it was hypothesized that disruption of these ligaments (as a result of aberrant methylation) may lead to a loss of support and eventually contribute to POP. In the present study, whether there are any aberrant methylations in the ULs of patients with POP compared to those of controls was investigated. Genomic DNA was isolated from the ULs of five women with POP and four women without POP, as controls, undergoing hysterectomy for benign conditions. An Illumina Infinium Methylation EPICBeadChips Infinium Human Methylation 850 K bead array was used to investigate the total methylation in the ULs. There were 3,723 differentially methylated CpG sites (Δβ<0.14; P<0.05), including 3,576 hypermethylation and 147 hypomethylation sites in the ULs of patients with POP compared with the normal controls. There were more hypermethylated CpG sites, but a high ratio of hypomethylation between CpG islands and the N-shelf; in the gene structure, there was more hypermethylation than hypomethylation in TSS1500 and the 5′ untranslated region. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that these differentially methylated genes were associated with ‘cell morphogenesis’, ‘extracellular matrix’, ‘cell junction’, ‘protein binding’ and ‘guanosine triphosphatase activity’. Several significant pathways were identified, including ‘focal adhesion’ and ‘extracellular matrix-receptor interaction pathway’. This study provides evidence that there are differences in genome-wide DNA methylation between ULs in menopausal women with and without POP, and that epigenetic mechanisms may partly contribute to POP pathogenesis.

Mutation screen of LOXL1 in patients with female pelvic organ prolapse

OBJECTIVES

The LOXL1 (lysyl oxidase-like 1) gene encodes a copper-dependent monoamine oxidase that catalyzes the deamination of a lysine residue in the cross-linking of tropoelastin monomers to form elastin. LOXL1-KO mice do not deposit normal elastic fibers in their genitourinary tract resulting in postpartum pelvic organ prolapse and lower urinary tract dysfunction with decreased bladder capacity and lower voiding pressure. We sought to identify which single nucleotide polymorphisms in the LOXL1 coding sequence play a role in female pelvic organ prolapse.

METHODS

A total of 66 patients were screened, 48 in the case group and 18 in the control group. The 7 exons of LOXL1 were evaluated for any polymorphisms.

RESULTS

Three missense sequence changes (Arg141Leu, Gly153Asp, and Ser159Ala) and 3 silent mutations (Asp292Asp, Ala320Ala, and Ile521Ile) were identified. None of these polymorphisms were found to differ significantly in frequency in the case group compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings do not support an association of any LOXL1 exonal single nucleotide polymorphisms with the diagnosis of female pelvic organ prolapse.

Urethral dysfunction in female mice with estrogen receptor β deficiency

Estrogen has various regulatory functions in the growth, development, and differentiation of the female urogenital system. This study investigated the roles of ERβ in stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Wild-type (ERβ^+/+) and knockout (ERβ^−/−) female mice were generated (aged 6–8 weeks, n = 6) and urethral function and protein expression were measured. Leak point pressures (LPP) and maximum urethral closure pressure (MUCP) were assessed in mice under urethane anesthesia. After the measurements, the urethras were removed for proteomic analysis using label-free quantitative proteomics by nano-liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. The interaction between these proteins was further analysed using MetaCore. Lastly, Western blot was used to confirm the candidate proteins. Compared with the ERβ^+/+ group, the LPP and MUCP values of the ERβ^−/− group were significantly decreased. Additionally, we identified 85 differentially expressed proteins in the urethra of ERβ^−/− female mice; 57 proteins were up-regulated and 28 were down-regulated. The majority of the ERβ knockout-modified proteins were involved in cell-matrix adhesion, metabolism, immune response, signal transduction, nuclear receptor translational regelation, and muscle contraction and development. Western blot confirmed the up-regulation of myosin and collagen in urethra. By contrast, elastin was down-regulated in the ERβ^−/− mice. This study is the first study to estimate protein expression changes in urethras from ERβ^−/− female mice. These changes could be related to the molecular mechanism of ERβ in SUI.

Human copper-dependent amine oxidases

Copper amine oxidases (CAOs) are a class of enzymes that contain Cu(2+) and a tyrosine-derived quinone cofactor, catalyze the conversion of a primary amine functional group to an aldehyde, and generate hydrogen peroxide and ammonia as byproducts. These enzymes can be classified into two non-homologous families: 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylalanine quinone (TPQ)-dependent CAOs and the lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent lysyl oxidase (LOX) family of proteins. In this review, we will focus on recent developments in the field of research concerning human CAOs and the LOX family of proteins. The aberrant expression of these enzymes is linked to inflammation, fibrosis, tumor metastasis/invasion and other diseases. Consequently, there is a critical need to understand the functions of these proteins at the molecular level, so that strategies targeting these enzymes can be developed to combat human diseases.

Stress urinary incontinence following vaginal trauma involves remodeling of urethral connective tissue in female mice

OBJECTIVE

The molecular mechanisms underlying stress urinary incontinence (SUI) are not clear. This study was conducted to evaluate molecular alterations in the urethras of mice with experimentally induced SUI.

STUDY DESIGN

Eighteen virgin female mice were equally distributed into three groups as follows: two groups undergoing vaginal distension (VD) for 1 h with 3 mm and 8 mm dilators each, and a non-instrumented control group. Changes in leak point pressure (LPP), morphology, lysyl oxidase (LOX) expression and the metabolism of urethral connective tissue were assessed.

RESULTS

The LPP was significantly decreased in the 3 mm and 8 mm VD groups compared with that in the control group. Collagen and elastin expression in the urethra was significantly decreased in the 8 mm VD group compared with that in the control group, while LOX expression was significantly enhanced.

CONCLUSIONS

SUI following vaginal trauma involves over-expression of LOX and decreased synthesis of extracellular matrix components or increased proteolysis in the urethra.

Alterations in connective tissue metabolism in stress incontinence and prolapse

PURPOSE

We describe current knowledge about collagen/elastin and extracellular matrix metabolism in the genitourinary tract with special emphasis on stress urinary incontinence. We also explored the influence of genetics and reproductive hormones on extracellular matrix metabolism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a MEDLINE® search from 1995 to February 2011 using the key words stress urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, extracellular matrix, collagen, elastin, matrix metalloproteinase, collagenase, tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase, elastin metabolism, elastase, connective tissue, supportive tissue, mechanical stress, biomechanical properties, selective estrogen receptor modulators, transforming growth factor-β and wound healing.

RESULTS

The literature searched produced data on 4 areas of significance for extracellular matrix metabolism in patients with stress urinary incontinence and prolapse, including collagen, elastin and transforming growth factor-β. Data on collagen metabolism continue to support the hypothesis of increased turnover involving matrix metalloproteinases and serine proteases in pelvic tissues of affected individuals. Elastin metabolism studies suggest increased degradation but also abnormal elastin fiber synthesis. Epidemiological data indicate a genetic predisposition to abnormal extracellular matrix in affected individuals while human tissue and animal models reveal differential expression of candidate genes involved in structural proteins. Transforming growth factor-β pathways have been documented to be involved in stress urinary incontinence in human tissues and animal models. Finally, these extracellular matrix metabolisms are modulated by reproductive hormones and selective estrogen receptor modulators.

CONCLUSIONS

Pelvic tissue from women with stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse show a genetic predisposition to abnormal extracellular matrix remodeling, which is modulated by reproductive hormones, trauma, mechanical stress load and aging. This progressive remodeling contributes to stress urinary incontinence/pelvic organ prolapse by altering normal tissue architecture and mechanical properties.

Pelvic floor disorders: linking genetic risk factors to biochemical changes

Pelvic floor disorders (PFDs) such as stress urinary incontinence (SUI) and pelvic organ prolapse (POP) may share a common pathophysiological process related to pelvic floor tissue laxity and loss of support. We reviewed recent literature on observed biochemical changes in women with SUI and POP, linking them to genetic predisposition. We found that studies of pelvic tissues showed differences between control subjects and women with POP and SUI in collagen and elastin structure at a molecular and fibrillar level. Studies were heterogeneous but showed a trend towards decreased collagen and elastin content. The contribution of matrix metalloproteinases to increased collagenolysis can be related to genetic polymorphisms present in higher frequency in women with PFD. Extracellular matrix (ECM) protein turnover plays a role in the development of POP and SUI, but much remains to be understood of this complex dynamic interplay of enzymes, proteins and molecules. Genotyping of candidate genes participating in ECM formation will elucidate the missing link between the manifestation of the disease and the biochemical changes observed systematically, in addition to those in the pelvic floor.

Genetics of pelvic organ prolapse: crossing the bridge between bench and bedside in urogynecologic research

An increasing number of scientists have studied the molecular and biochemical basis of pelvic organ prolapse (POP). The extracellular matrix content of the pelvic floor is the major focus of those investigations and pointed for potential molecular markers of the dysfunction. The identification of women predisposed to develop POP would help in the patients' management and care. This article includes a critical analysis of the literature up to now; discusses implications for future research and the role of the genetics in POP.