The effect of 1-year transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on bone mineral density and biochemical markers of bone turnover in osteopenic postmenopausal systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Hormone therapy effect on menopausal systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a systematic review

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) primarily affects women, who may need hormone therapy (HT) in menopause. There is, however, some concern as to its efficacy and safety. This systematic review aimed to determine the effect of HT on the activity of SLE and its safety. The study was a qualitative systematic review. Research was conducted with data retrieved from Embase, MEDLINE and Cochrane databases using MESH terms up to April 2021, with no bar on date or language. Sixteen studies were selected for analysis. Most of them showed HT to be effective in the treatment of menopausal symptoms with no impact in SLE activity, but one randomized clinical trial showed an increase in the number of thrombotic events. The present systematic review demonstrated the efficacy of HT for treating the menopausal symptoms of SLE patients. The risk of flare and thrombosis seems to be very low.

Interventions for cutaneous disease in systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

Lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease with significant morbidity and mortality. Cutaneous disease in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is common. Many interventions are used to treat SLE with varying efficacy, risks, and benefits.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of interventions for cutaneous disease in SLE.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases up to June 2019: the Cochrane Skin Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, Wiley Interscience Online Library, and Biblioteca Virtual em Saude (Virtual Health Library). We updated our search in September 2020, but these results have not yet been fully incorporated.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of interventions for cutaneous disease in SLE compared with placebo, another intervention, no treatment, or different doses of the same intervention. We did not evaluate trials of cutaneous lupus in people without a diagnosis of SLE.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Primary outcomes were complete and partial clinical response. Secondary outcomes included reduction (or change) in number of clinical flares; and severe and minor adverse events. We used GRADE to assess the quality of evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

Sixty-one RCTs, involving 11,232 participants, reported 43 different interventions. Trials predominantly included women from outpatient clinics; the mean age range of participants was 20 to 40 years. Twenty-five studies reported baseline severity, and 22 studies included participants with moderate to severe cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE); duration of CLE was not well reported. Studies were conducted mainly in multi-centre settings. Most often treatment duration was 12 months. Risk of bias was highest for the domain of reporting bias, followed by performance/detection bias. We identified too few studies for meta-analysis for most comparisons. We limited this abstract to main comparisons (all administered orally) and outcomes. We did not identify clinical trials of other commonly used treatments, such as topical corticosteroids, that reported complete or partial clinical response or numbers of clinical flares. Complete clinical response Studies comparing oral hydroxychloroquine against placebo did not report complete clinical response. Chloroquine may increase complete clinical response at 12 months' follow-up compared with placebo (absence of skin lesions) (risk ratio (RR) 1.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95 to 2.61; 1 study, 24 participants; low-quality evidence). There may be little to no difference between methotrexate and chloroquine in complete clinical response (skin rash resolution) at 6 months' follow-up (RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.50; 1 study, 25 participants; low-quality evidence). Methotrexate may be superior to placebo with regard to complete clinical response (absence of malar/discoid rash) at 6 months' follow-up (RR 3.57, 95% CI 1.63 to 7.84; 1 study, 41 participants; low-quality evidence). At 12 months' follow-up, there may be little to no difference between azathioprine and ciclosporin in complete clinical response (malar rash resolution) (RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.46 to 1.52; 1 study, 89 participants; low-quality evidence). Partial clinical response Partial clinical response was reported for only one key comparison: hydroxychloroquine may increase partial clinical response at 12 months compared to placebo, but the 95% CI indicates that hydroxychloroquine may make no difference or may decrease response (RR 7.00, 95% CI 0.41 to 120.16; 20 pregnant participants, 1 trial; low-quality evidence). Clinical flares Clinical flares were reported for only two key comparisons: hydroxychloroquine is probably superior to placebo at 6 months' follow-up for reducing clinical flares (RR 0.49, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.89; 1 study, 47 participants; moderate-quality evidence). At 12 months' follow-up, there may be no difference between methotrexate and placebo, but the 95% CI indicates there may be more or fewer flares with methotrexate (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.32 to 1.83; 1 study, 86 participants; moderate-quality evidence). Adverse events Data for adverse events were limited and were inconsistently reported, but hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine, and methotrexate have well-documented adverse effects including gastrointestinal symptoms, liver problems, and retinopathy for hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine and teratogenicity during pregnancy for methotrexate.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence supports the commonly-used treatment hydroxychloroquine, and there is also evidence supporting chloroquine and methotrexate for treating cutaneous disease in SLE. Evidence is limited due to the small number of studies reporting key outcomes. Evidence for most key outcomes was low or moderate quality, meaning findings should be interpreted with caution. Head-to-head intervention trials designed to detect differences in efficacy between treatments for specific CLE subtypes are needed. Thirteen further trials are awaiting classification and have not yet been incorporated in this review; they may alter the review conclusions.

Bone impairment assessed by HR-pQCT in juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus

High-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) analysis of female juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (JoSLE) patients revealed trabecular/cortical bone damage and reduced bone strength primarily at the distal radius compared to healthy controls. We demonstrated for the first time that JoSLE patients with vertebral fracture (VF) present trabecular impairment at the distal radius.

INTRODUCTION

This study investigated the volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), microarchitecture, and biomechanical features at the distal radius and tibia using HR-pQCT and laboratory bone markers in JoSLE patients compared to controls to determine whether this method discriminates JoSLE patients with or without VF.

METHODS

We compared 56 female JoSLE patients to age- and Tanner-matched healthy controls. HR-pQCT was performed at the distal radius and tibia. Serum levels of the amino-terminal pro-peptide of type I collagen, the C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen, intact parathormone, sclerostin, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) were evaluated. VFs were analyzed using VFA-dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (Genant's method).

RESULTS

Reduced density and strength parameters and microarchitecture alterations of cortical and trabecular bones were observed in JoSLE patients compared to controls, primarily at the distal radius (p < 0.05). Patients with VF exhibited a significant decrease in trabecular bone parameters solely at the distal radius (Total.BMD, p = 0.034; Trabecular.BMD [Tb.BMD], p = 0.034; bone volume (BV)/trabecular volume (TV), p = 0.034; apparent modulus, p = 0.039) and higher scores for disease damage (Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics/American College of Rheumatology Damage Index (SLICC/ACR-DI), p = 0.002). Bone metabolism markers were similar in all groups. Logistic regression analysis of parameters that were significant in univariate analysis revealed that Tb.BMD (OR 0.98, 95 % CI 0.95-0.99, p = 0.039) and SLICC/ACR-DI (OR 7.37, 95 % CI 1.75-30.97, p = 0.006) were independent risk factors for VF.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study is the first demonstration of bone microstructure and strength deficits in JoSLE patients, particularly at the distal radius. Our results demonstrated that VF was associated with trabecular radius alteration and emphasized the potential detrimental effect of disease damage on this condition.

Feasibility of measurement of bone turnover markers in female patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the feasibility of bone turnover markers (BTMs) for the assessment of bone metabolism in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), according to the guidelines of the International Osteoporosis Foundation and the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine.

METHODS

The study included 43 female SLE patients. Serum procollagen type I N propeptide (PINP), C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX), osteocalcin, PTH, 25(OH)D, anti-cardiolipin, anti-dsDNA, and anti-nucleosome levels were measured.

RESULTS

PINP and CTX levels were elevated in SLE patients aged > 45 in comparison to those aged < 45, although with borderline significance (p = 0.05, respectively). Correlations were found between BTMs: the strongest being between PINP and osteocalcin (τ = 0.69, p < 0.05). PINP and osteocalcin were found to be associated with PTH (τ = 0.3, τ = 0.29, respectively, p < 0.05). Age correlated with PINP (τ = 0.23, p < 0.05). Elevated PINP was found more frequently than elevated osteocalcin or CTX, both in patients aged < 45 (p = 0.001) and > 45 (p < 0.001). No significant difference in PINP, osteocalcin or CTX levels was found with respect to season, neither in the entire SLE group, nor in the under-45 or over-45 groups. Previous glucocorticoid treatment was not associated with difference in BTMs.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased BTMs in SLE appear to predominantly reflect the pattern of bone remodeling related to age. Increased PINP is expected to be the most frequent outcome among BTMs. Better diagnoses of bone disturbances with BTMs performed in accordance with international reference standards need to be included in the approach to SLE patients, in addition to bone mineral density assessment.

Autoimmune diseases and reproductive aging

As the population ages, more individuals with autoimmune diseases are experiencing reproductive senescence. Understanding the impact of menopause and age-related androgen decline on disease onset and course, as well as the potential for hormonal interventions, is critically important. In men, lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and multiple sclerosis (MS) are associated with lower androgen levels. However, the impact of age-related declines in testosterone, as well as of testosterone replacement, on disease course remains underexplored. In women, the course of all three diseases with onset after the age of menopause differs from that with onset before menopause. Early age at menopause is associated with increased disease risk, and after menopause, disease course changes in SLE and RA. Less is known about MS. This article summarizes what is known about the relationship between reproductive aging and autoimmune diseases in men and women, and highlights areas for further investigation.

[Systemic autoimmune disorders and pregnancy]

The coincidence of systemic autoimmune diseases and pregnancy may modify the outcome of the disease and the pregnancy due to the background immunologic and hormonal processes. The great majority of patients with autoimmune diseases are young females in their reproductive years, willing to have babies. Consequently, we have to prepare for this special situation. Our concept on childbearing in autoimmune women has changed within the last 30 years. Earlier, systemic lupus erythematosus flared in about 50% of patients during pregnancy, but the flare rate has significantly decreased recently. This improvement can be attributed to increased attention to low diseases activity at the time of conception, which might reduce to the half of the risk for flare. Tight control of patients and appropriate use of corticosteroids also contribute to the better results. The adequate use of anti-thrombotic agents resulted in a significant amelioration of pregnancy outcome in antiphospholipid syndrome. The earlier use of methotrexate and the introduction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis have changed the natural characteristics of the disease. The increase in remission rate indirectly has beneficial effect on the number of planned and carried out pregnancies. Authors review the connection between systemic autoimmune disorders and pregnancy as well as the possibilities of medical treatment of such diseases during pregnancy.

Estrogen and autoimmune disease

Estrogenic hormones possess both immunostimulating and immunosuppressive properties. In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), pregnancy is associated with disease flares. In some situations, exogenous estrogen predisposes to development of new SLE, flares of preexisting SLE, and thromboses in susceptible individuals. In contrast, treatment with exogenous estrogen protects postmenopausal rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients from active RA and osteoporosis. The search for estrogen-like compounds with anti-inflammatory properties may expand treatment options in RA.

Bone health in systemic lupus erythematosus

Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) confront an increased risk of developing osteoporosis and fragility fractures. Traditional risk factors, such as smoking, advanced age, physical inactivity, and low weight, are partly responsible, but a number of lupus-specific risk factors may also play an important role. Chronic, systemic inflammation in patients with SLE has been proposed as a possible mechanism for osteoporosis development. Other potential risk factors include vitamin D deficiency due to sun avoidance, premature gonadal failure, and the chronic use of medications known to increase osteoporosis risk. Increased awareness of this potentially preventable condition is warranted, as early detection and treatment help optimize bone health and improve long-term outcomes in patients with SLE. This article presents recent epidemiologic data related to bone health in SLE and discusses preventative and therapeutic strategies.

One year open-label safety and efficacy trial with rotigotine transdermal patch in moderate to severe idiopathic restless legs syndrome

BACKGROUND

Long-term efficacy and tolerability data are not yet available for patch formulations of dopamine agonists in restless legs syndrome.

METHODS

Efficacy and safety of rotigotine (0.5-4mg/24h), formulated as a once-daily transdermal system (patch), were investigated in an open extension (SP710) of a preceding 6-week placebo-controlled trial (SP709, 341 randomized patients) in patients with idiopathic restless legs syndrome. For efficacy assessment the international RLS severity scale (IRLS), the RLS-6 scales, the clinical global impressions (CGI) and the QoL-RLS questionnaire were administered. In addition, long-term tolerability and safety were assessed.

RESULTS

Of 310 patients who finished the controlled trial, 295 (mean age 58+/-10 years, 66% females) with a mean IRLS score of 27.8+/-5.9 at baseline of SP709 were included. We report results after one year of this ongoing long-term trial. Two hundred twenty patients (retention rate=74.6%) completed the 12-month follow-up period. The mean daily dose was 2.8+/-1.2mg/24h with 4mg/24h (40.6%) being the most frequently applied dose; 14.8% were sufficiently treated with 0.5 or 1.0mg/24h. The IRLS total score improved by ?17.4+/-9.9 points between baseline and end of Year 1 (p<0.001). The other measures of severity, sleep satisfaction and quality of life supported the efficacy of rotigotine (p<0.001 for pre-post-comparisons of all efficacy variables). The tolerability was described as "good" or "very good" by 80.3% of all patients. The most common adverse events were application site reactions (40.0%), which led to withdrawal in 13.2%. Further relatively frequent adverse events were nausea (9.5%) and fatigue (6.4%). Two drug-related serious adverse events, nausea and syncope, required hospitalization. Symptoms of augmentation were not reported by the patients.

CONCLUSION

Rotigotine provided a stable, clinically relevant improvement in all efficacy measures throughout one year of maintenance therapy. The transdermal patch was safe and generally well tolerated by the majority of patients. Comparable to any transdermal therapy, application site reactions were the main treatment complication.

Learning from past mistakes: assessing trial quality, power and eligibility in non-renal systemic lupus erythematosus randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the post hoc study power of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in the treatment of non-renal SLE and to determine the generalizability of these RCTs using an SLE database.

METHODS

RCTs in non-renal SLE were identified using PubMed (1975-2007). Inclusion/exclusion criteria, trial quality (5-point scale) and results of each study were recorded. The inclusion/exclusion criteria were compared with an SLE database to determine the proportion of patients from the database who would theoretically be eligible for these trials. For each negative study, we calculated the post hoc study power. We also looked for temporal improvements of trials in the literature and examined if pharmaceutical involvement influenced trial quality.

RESULTS

Sixty-four articles were included; the mean power of 30 negative studies was 24.6 +/- s.e.m. 3.9% (range 2.5-81.1%). Only one study had a power > 80%. Overall, potential eligibility of SLE patients in the database was 45.1 +/- s.e.m. 3.6%. Only 14 studies (21.9%) were of good quality. Fortunately, RCT quality is improving over time (trials <1995, compared with 1996-2002 and >2003; P < 0.001). Trials with pharmaceutical involvement had a significantly higher number of enrollees and better study quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Negative RCTs in SLE were mostly underpowered but the generalizability of these trials was high. Determination of study power and the impact of eligibility criteria on generalizability of study results are crucial in the design of clinical trials to ensure applicability to clinical practice.

[Modern therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus]

Even though no new treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has been approved in over 40 years, the treatment possibilities have expanded decisively in this time. The available evidence for most forms of therapy is rather thin, yet there is a wide consensus on an individual immunosuppressive therapy that is adjusted to the illness activity and severity. Various new substances, e.g. other immunosuppressants and anti-cell therapies have been tested, mostly in open studies. Considering the experience in other indications, mycophenolate mofetil and rituximab have a very promising potential to be approved for therapy of SLE. Aside from these, "old medications" such as antimalarial drugs still possess a high value. Besides the effective suppression of the illness activity, this is especially decisive for the improvement of the long-term prognosis, the treatment of co-morbidities and secondary prevention and the avoidance of negative effects of the illness and therapy, such as infections, osteoporosis, and premature arteriosclerosis. As these "simple" measures often remain disregarded in modern therapy, they will be focused on in this overview on the current treatment concepts for SLE and these aspects will be discussed in greater depth. With regard to new future therapies, we refer the reader to other current publications.

Long-term effects of progestins on bone quality and fractures

The effects of progestins on the quality of bone and their influence on the risk of fractures are reviewed. Data discussed are based on experimental studies in vivo that generally lasted for longer than one year. Information is given on the background of osteoporosis and on several means of inducing changes in bone quality. In young women who start using oral contraceptives based on progestins alone shortly after pubertal development, a significant decrease in bone quality has been documented. World Health Organization experts have concluded that this is not a real argument for restrictions on the use of these contraceptives. In postmenopausal women, no evidence has been found for a bone-protective or an estrogen-antagonistic effect of progestins. A wide range of estrogens have been used that have shown positive effects on bone, which are not antagonized by progestins. The therapeutic use of high-dose megestrol acetate may result in marked negative effects on bone, leading to severe osteoporosis, possibly due to the inherent glucocorticoid activity of this progestin. Other pharmacotherapeutic agents that can be used in postmenopausal therapy, and that clearly have beneficial effects on bone, are discussed.