Use of systemic glucocorticoids and the risk of major osteoporotic fractures in patients with sarcoidosis

Imaging Plays a Key Role in the Diagnosis and Control of the Treatment of Bone Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease of unknown origin. The most frequent localizations are thoracic lymph nodes and/or parenchymal lung disease, nevertheless any other organ may be involved. Musculoskeletal sarcoidosis, previously considered a rare manifestation of the disease, is presently recognized with increasing frequency, due to the development of modern imaging modalities. The classical X-ray sign of bone sarcoidosis is the image of lace in the phalanges of the hands. Most other locations present with atypical radiological images. Therefore, they may mimic metastatic neoplastic disease, especially when they are the first sign of sarcoidosis not previously recognized. On such occasions, none of the imaging methods will give the correct diagnosis, histopathological verification, monitoring of lesions or clinical data in a patient with confirmed sarcoidosis are indicated. The article summarizes the current status of knowledge concerning the recognition and therapy of bone sarcoidosis. In addition, an illustrative case of patient with bone and bone marrow sarcoidosis is presented.

The Risk of Sarcoidosis Misdiagnosis and the Harmful Effect of Corticosteroids When the Disease Picture Is Incomplete

Sarcoidosis is a complex granulomatous disease of unknown etiology. Due to the heterogeneity of the disease, the diagnosis remains challenging in many cases, often at the physician's discretion, requiring a thorough and complex investigation. Many other granulomatous diseases have the potential to mimic sarcoidosis, whether infectious, occupational, or autoimmune diseases and starting an unnecessary corticosteroid treatment can worsen the patient's prognosis, leading to side effects that can be harder to treat than the actual disease.

Sarcoidosis with musculoskeletal manifestations: systematic review of non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments

We aimed to summarise effects and use of non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments for sarcoidosis with musculoskeletal manifestations. We systematically searched the Cochrane Library, Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, AMED, Scopus, clinical.trials.gov, PROSPERO and PEDro for systematic reviews from 2014 to 2022 and for primary studies from date of inception to March 29, 2022, and studies with patients diagnosed with sarcoidosis with musculoskeletal manifestations. Inclusion criteria required that studies reported effects of non-pharmacological and/or pharmacological treatments or number of patients receiving these treatments. Results were reported narratively and in forest plots. Eleven studies were included. No systematic reviews fulfilled our inclusion criteria. None of the included studies had a control group. We found that between 23 and 100% received corticosteroids, 0-100% received NSAIDs, 5-100% received hydroxychloroquine, 12-100% received methotrexate, 0-100% received TNF inhibitors, and 3-4% received azathioprine. Only ten patients in one study had used non-pharmacological treatments, including occupational therapy, chiropractic and acupuncture. There are no controlled studies on treatment effects for patients with sarcoidosis with musculoskeletal manifestations. We found 11 studies reporting use of pharmacological treatments and only one study reporting use of non-pharmacological treatments. Our study identified major research gaps for pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment in musculoskeletal sarcoidosis and warrant randomised clinical trials for both.

Bone fragility and sarcoidosis: An underestimated relationship

INTRODUCTION

Sarcoidosis is a chronic multisystem inflammatory disease which may affect any organ. Also bone can be involved both directly and indirectly. Data on BMD values and fragility fractures in sarcoidosis patients are few and heterogeneous. This study aimed to characterized the presence of fracture and the relative risk factors in patients with sarcoidosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this single center cross-sectional study we evaluated 252 sarcoidosis patients (54.7 ± 12.1 years) compared to sex-and age matched healthy controls. We measured BMD at lumbar spine, at femoral neck and at total hip. Moreover, the presence of fragility fractures was collected during osteoporosis visit and all radiological images were examined for the presence of any vertebral fracture according to Genant's method's. Lung function measurements, including forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), FEV1/FVC, and diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) were assessed.

RESULTS

Bone Mineral Density T-scores were lower in patients affected by sarcoidosis with respect to those obtained in healthy controls, but the difference was statistically significant only for BMD-LS (p < 0.01) and BMD-TH (p < 0.05). Moreover, BMD values at all skeletal sites were significantly associated with DLCO (%) (p < 0.05). The prevalence of fragility fracture was higher in patients with sarcoidosis than in healthy controls (30.6 vs. 12.3%). The patients with ≥3 vertebral fracture had lower values of FVC (%), FEV1 (%), and DLCO (%). Multiple regression analyses showed that BMI was positively associated with fragility fracture, while BMD-TH, DLCO(%) and therapy use was negatively associated.

CONCLUSIONS

Vertebral fractures represent a frequent complication in patients with sarcoidosis. Furthermore, the number of vertebral fractures was linked with a worsening in pulmonary functional tests. Therefore, the degree of severity of the sarcoidosis disease appears to be the main determinant of bone fragility.

Association between Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Risk of Osteoporosis in Korean Premenopausal Women

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to evaluate irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) as a risk factor for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fracture in Korean women after controlling for basic confounding factors and considering detailed demographic and clinical information.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We performed a nationwide population-based retrospective cohort analysis and matched every IBS case with a non-IBS case at a 1:4 frequency ratio based on age. The population consisted of female patients with data in the Health Insurance Review and Assessment (HIRA) database from 2002 to 2010. To determine the risk of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fracture in IBS and non-IBS patients, hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression models, adjusting for confounding variables, such as the area of residence, health insurance type, and economic status.

RESULTS

We identified 1,017,468 patients in the HIRA database with data from 2002 to 2010 who could potentially be included in the cohort. Among these, we identified 1,545 (11.4%) women (age >19 years) with newly diagnosed IBS (IBS group). Additionally, 6,180 patients without IBS and age-matched to the IBS group were selected. Cox modeling revealed that the crude HRs for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in patients with IBS were 1.476 (95% CI, 1.241-1.754) and 1.427 (95% CI, 1.086-1.876), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our data showed an increased incidence of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in women with IBS compared with age-matched controls.

Balancing Altered Calcium Metabolism with Bone Health in Sarcoidosis

Abnormal calcium metabolism in sarcoidosis patients can lead to hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria, and kidney stones. Hypercalcemia in sarcoidosis is usually due to increased activity of 1α-hydroxylase in macrophages of pulmonary granulomata, resulting in low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and high levels of calcitriol. Vitamin D supplementation may be dangerous for some sarcoidosis patients and is recommended only for those with decreased 25-hydroxyvitamin D and reduced or normal calcitriol level. Diagnosis, treatment of osteoporosis, and maintenance of bone health are complex issues for sarcoidosis patients. An approach to diagnosis and treatment of bone fragility is presented.

Indications for treatment of sarcoidosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To describe the current knowledge on indications for sarcoidosis treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Despite the lack of evidence-based recommendations, the sarcoidosis community has adopted the concept of starting systemic anti-inflammatory treatment because of potential danger (risk of severe dysfunction on major organs or death) or unacceptable impaired quality of life (QoL). On the contrary, while QoL and functionality are patients' priorities, few studies have evaluated treatment effect on patient-reported outcomes. The awareness of long-term corticosteroids toxicities and consequences on QoL and the emergence of novel drugs have changed therapeutic management. Second-line therapy, mainly methotrexate and azathioprine, are indicated for corticosteroids sparing or corticosteroids-resistant sarcoidosis. TNF-α inhibitors are a useful third-line therapy in chronic refractory disease. In addition to organ-targeted treatment, efforts should also be taken for treating nonorgan-specific symptoms, such as physical training for fatigue, and various disease complications.

SUMMARY

Clinicians should offer a tailored treatment for each patient and ensure a holistic multidisciplinary approach, including pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions. Patient-centered communication is critical to drive shared decisions, in particular for the tricky situation of isolated impaired QoL as the unique therapeutic indication. Once treatment is decided, clinicians should define a clear therapeutic plan, including goals and instruments to assess response.

Sarcoidosis and calcium homeostasis disturbances-Do we know where we stand?

The majority of cases involving hypercalcemia in the setting of sarcoidosis are explained by the overproduction of calcitriol by activated macrophages. Vitamin D takes part in the regulation of granuloma formation. However, using vitamin D metabolites to assess the activity of the disease is still problematic, and its usefulness is disputable. In some cases, though, a calcium metabolism disorder could be a valuable tool (i.e. as a marker of extrathoracic sarcoidosis). Although sarcoidosis does not cause a decrease in bone mineral density, increased incidence of vertebral deformities is noted. Despite increasing knowledge about calcium homeostasis disorders in patients with sarcoidosis, there is still a need for clear guidelines regarding calcium and vitamin D supplementation in these patients.

Glucocorticoid Exposure and Fracture Risk in a Cohort of US Patients With Selected Conditions

The purpose of this work was to evaluate systemic glucocorticoid exposure and fracture among patients with newly-diagnosed inflammatory and immune-modulated conditions. Using administrative data, inception cohorts of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), multiple sclerosis (MS), lupus, and sarcoidosis patients age 18 to 64 years with benefits coverage ≥12 months before diagnosis (January 1, 2005 to December 31, 2012) were followed to clinical fracture, cancer diagnosis, or December 31, 2012. Glucocorticoid users were new to therapy. Fracture incidence rates (IRs) per 1000 person-years were stratified by prednisone equivalent doses. Cox's proportional hazards models assessed risk by daily and cumulative dose, and by time since discontinuation, adjusted for baseline characteristics. Most patients (72% of 403,337) had glucocorticoid exposure; 52% were under age 50. IR (95% confidence interval [CI]) of any osteoporotic fracture was elevated at doses <5 mg/day (IR 9.33; 95% CI, 7.29 to 11.77) versus 0 mg/day (IR 4.87 (95% CI, 4.72 to 5.02). Fracture rates were elevated at doses <5 mg/day in patients <50 years and those ≥50 years. In both age groups, fracture risk increased with increasing cumulative exposure, being approximately 2.5-fold higher at cumulative dose ≥5400 mg compared to <675 mg. At ≥5400 mg, IR values were 5.69 (95% CI, 4.32 to 7.35) in patients <50 years and 17.10 (95% CI, 14.97 to 19.46) in older patients. Fracture risk decreased significantly within months following glucocorticoid discontinuation. In patients with a variety of inflammatory conditions, fracture risk increased at doses as low as <5 mg/day. Risk increased with increasing cumulative exposure and decreased soon following glucocorticoid discontinuation. Trends were similar between patients older and younger than 50 years. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Bone Mineral Loss and Fracture in Sarcoidosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Objectives

This meta-analysis aims to investigate the possibility of bone mineral loss and fracture in sarcoidosis.

Materials and methods

A comprehensive search of the MEDLINE and Embase databases was performed from inception through August 2017. The inclusion criterion was observational studies evaluating the association between sarcoidosis and bone mineral density (BMD) or fracture. The pooled odds ratio (OR) of fracture, standardized mean difference (SMD) of volumetric BMD and areal BMD, and their 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated using a random-effects meta-analysis to compare risk between sarcoidosis and controls. The between-study heterogeneity of effect-size was quantified using the Q statistic and I2.

Results

Data were extracted from 10 studies involving a total of 6,448 sarcoidosis patients and 77,857 controls. The pooled result demonstrated no significant increased risk of fracture in sarcoidosis patients compared with controls (OR=1.68; 95% CI: 0.85-3.31, p value=0.14, I2=72%). There were no differences between the patients and controls in areal BMD (SMD= 0.21 g/cm2; 95% CI: -0.12-0.54, p value= 0.22, I2=0%) or volumetric BMD (SMD= 0.04 mg/cm3; 95% CI: -0.51-0.58, p value=0.89, I2=83%).

Conclusion

Our study has not shown an increased risk of fracture or bone mineral loss in sarcoidosis. However, based on the currently available studies with heterogeneity in between, the conclusion for the osteoporosis screening and fracture risk assessment of patients with sarcoidosis cannot be drawn until more studies are available.

Glucocorticoids suppress Wnt16 expression in osteoblasts in vitro and in vivo

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is a frequent complication of systemic glucocorticoid (GC) therapy and mainly characterized by suppressed osteoblast activity. Wnt16 derived from osteogenic cells is a key determinant of bone mass. Here, we assessed whether GC suppress bone formation via inhibiting Wnt16 expression. GC treatment with dexamethasone (DEX) decreased Wnt16 mRNA levels in murine bone marrow stromal cells (mBMSCs) time- and dose-dependently. Similarly, Wnt16 expression was also suppressed after DEX treatment in calvarial organ cultures. Consistently, mice receiving GC-containing slow-release prednisolone pellets showed lower skeletal Wnt16 mRNA levels and bone mineral density than placebo-treated mice. The suppression of Wnt16 by GCs was GC-receptor-dependent as co-treatment of mBMSCs with DEX and the GR antagonist RU-486 abrogated the GC-mediated suppression of Wnt16. Likewise, DEX failed to suppress Wnt16 expression in GR knockout-mBMSCs. In addition, Wnt16 mRNA levels were unaltered in bone tissue of GC-treated GR dimerization-defective GR^dim mice, suggesting that GCs suppress Wnt16 via direct DNA-binding mechanisms. Consistently, DEX treatment reduced Wnt16 promoter activity in MC3T3-E1 cells. Finally, recombinant Wnt16 restored DEX-induced suppression of bone formation in mouse calvaria. Thus, this study identifies Wnt16 as a novel target of GC action in GC-induced suppression of bone formation.

Use of high-dose intermittent systemic glucocorticoids and the risk of fracture in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

INTRODUCTION

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterised by persistent airflow obstruction and respiratory symptoms. While short course systemic GCs are prescribed in patients with acute COPD exacerbations, little is known of the risk of fractures with intermittent exposure to high-dose GC and the effect of proxies of disease severity.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted using the Danish National Hospital Discharge Registry (NHDR) between January 1996 to December 2011. Conditional logistics regression models were used to derive adjusted odds ratios (OR) risk of fractures in subjects with COPD stratified by intermittent high-dose, and proxies of disease severity.

RESULT

A total of 635,536 cases and the same number of controls were identified (mean age 67.5±13.8, 65% female). COPD patients with intermittent use of high average daily dose oral glucocorticoids did not have an increased risk of any, osteoporotic, hip or clinically symptomatic vertebral fracture compared to non-COPD patients (adj. OR 0.65; 95% CI: 0.50-0.86, 0.70; 95% CI: 0.70-0.99, 1.17; 95% CI: 0.59-2.32, 1.98; 95% CI: 0.59-6.65 respectively). We identified an elevated risk of osteoporotic fracture among patients who visited the emergency unit (adj. OR 1.47; 95% CI 1.20-1.79) or were hospitalised in the past year for COPD (adj. OR 1.76; 95% CI 1.66-1.85). Current GC use among COPD patients was associated with an increased risk of osteoporotic, hip and clinically symptomatic vertebral fractures compared to patients without COPD.

CONCLUSION

Intermittent high-dose GCs was not associated with an increased risk of any, osteoporotic, hip or clinically symptomatic vertebral fractures in patients with COPD. Current GC use was however associated with an increased risk of hip and clinically symptomatic vertebral fractures. Therefore, emphasis on prophylactic treatment of fractures may not be essential in patients with COPD receiving intermittent dose of GCs, whereas this should be considered for high-dose long-term users with advanced COPD disease stage, postmenopausal women and men over 40years.

Glucocorticoid sparing effect of zoledronic acid in sarcoid hypercalcemia

INTRODUCTION

Glucocorticoids are regarded as first-line therapy in the management of hypercalcemia associated with sarcoidosis. However, prolonged glucocorticoid therapy leads to metabolic abnormalities, Cushingoid habitus, and impairment of bone health. This study demonstrates the efficacy and glucocorticoid-sparing effect of zoledronic acid in sarcoid hypercalcemia.

METHODS

We present three patients with sarcoid hypercalcemia. They were successfully managed with oral glucocorticoids for many months. However, all patients developed adverse effects of glucocorticoids. When tapering of glucocorticoids was attempted, hypercalcemia recurred. Zoledronic acid was administered in order to control hypercalcemia and to allow tapering of glucocorticoids.

RESULTS

Following zoledronic acid administration, serum calcium level normalised and glucocorticoids could be discontinued in all the three patients. Normocalcemia was maintained for an average of 18 months after a single infusion. Sarcoidosis remained in remission in all the three patients.

CONCLUSION

Zoledronic acid should be studied as a potential first-line agent for sarcoid hypercalcemia. Furthermore, disease-modifying effects of zoledronic acid in sarcoidosis should be investigated.