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Zhu M, Wang Y, Han J, Sun Y, Wang S, Yang B, Wang Q, Kuang H. Artesunate Exerts Organ- and Tissue-Protective Effects by Regulating Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Autophagy, Apoptosis, and Fibrosis: A Review of Evidence and Mechanisms. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:686. [PMID: 38929125 PMCID: PMC11200509 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13060686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The human body comprises numerous organs and tissues operating in synchrony, it facilitates metabolism, circulation, and overall organismal function. Consequently, the well-being of our organs and tissues significantly influences our overall health. In recent years, research on the protective effects of artesunate (AS) on various organ functions, including the heart, liver, brain, lungs, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, bones, and others has witnessed significant advancements. Findings from in vivo and in vitro studies suggest that AS may emerge as a newfound guardian against organ damage. Its protective mechanisms primarily entail the inhibition of inflammatory factors and affect anti-fibrotic, anti-aging, immune-enhancing, modulation of stem cells, apoptosis, metabolic homeostasis, and autophagy properties. Moreover, AS is attracting a high level of interest because of its obvious antioxidant activities, including the activation of Nrf2 and HO-1 signaling pathways, inhibiting the release of reactive oxygen species, and interfering with the expression of genes and proteins associated with oxidative stress. This review comprehensively outlines the recent strides made by AS in alleviating organismal injuries stemming from various causes and protecting organs, aiming to serve as a reference for further in-depth research and utilization of AS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingtao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Jianwei Han
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Yanping Sun
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Shuang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Bingyou Yang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
| | - Qiuhong Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510024, China
| | - Haixue Kuang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; (M.Z.); (Y.W.); (J.H.); (Y.S.); (S.W.); (B.Y.)
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Li BL, Chen JY, Hu JJ, Fan YW, Ao ZY, Zhang WJ, Lian X, Liang HJ, Li QR, Guan XX, Wu JW, Yuan J, Jiang DX. Three stilbenes from pigeon pea with promising anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation activity. Int Microbiol 2024; 27:535-544. [PMID: 37505307 DOI: 10.1007/s10123-023-00413-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Cajaninstilbene acid (CSA), longistylin A (LLA), and longistylin C (LLC) are three characteristic stilbenes isolated from pigeon pea. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of these stilbenes against Staphylococcus aureus and even methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and test the possibility of inhibiting biofilm formation. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of these stilbenes were evaluated. And the results showed that LLA was most effective against tested strains with MIC and MBC values of 1.56 μg/mL followed by LLC with MIC and MBC values of 3.12 μg/mL and 6.25 μg/mL as well as CSA with MIC and MBC values of 6.25 μg/mL and 6.25-12.5 μg/mL. Through growth curve and cytotoxicity analysis, the concentrations of these stilbenes were determined to be set at their respective 1/4 MIC in the follow-up research. In an anti-biofilm formation assay, these stilbenes were found to be effectively inhibited bacterial proliferation, biofilm formation, and key gene expressions related to the adhesion and virulence of MRSA. It is the first time that the anti-S. aureus and MRSA activities of the three stilbenes have been systematically reported. Conclusively, these findings provide insight into the anti-MRSA mechanism of stilbenes from pigeon pea, indicating these compounds may be used as antimicrobial agents or additives for food with health functions, and contribute to the development as well as application of pigeon pea in food science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bai-Lin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement, Core Botanical Garden, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, Guangzhou, 510650, P. R. China
| | - Jia-Yan Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Juan-Juan Hu
- Laboratory for Functional Foods and Human Health, Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Kannapolis, NC, 28081, USA
| | - Yu-Wen Fan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Zhuo-Yi Ao
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Wei-Jie Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Xin Lian
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Hui-Jun Liang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Qian-Ran Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Xian Guan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Jie-Wei Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Jie Yuan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China.
| | - Dong-Xu Jiang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
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Wang Z, Wang H, Bai J, Cai S, Qu D, Xie Y, Wu Y. The Staphylococcus aureus ArlS Kinase Inhibitor Tilmicosin Has Potent Anti-Biofilm Activity in Both Static and Flow Conditions. Microorganisms 2024; 12:256. [PMID: 38399660 PMCID: PMC10891534 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12020256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus can form biofilms on biotic surfaces or implanted materials, leading to biofilm-associated diseases in humans and animals that are refractory to conventional antibiotic treatment. Recent studies indicate that the unique ArlRS regulatory system in S. aureus is a promising target for screening inhibitors that may eradicate formed biofilms, retard virulence and break antimicrobial resistance. In this study, by screening in the library of FDA-approved drugs, tilmicosin was found to inhibit ArlS histidine kinase activity (IC50 = 1.09 μM). By constructing a promoter-fluorescence reporter system, we found that tilmicosin at a concentration of 0.75 μM or 1.5 μM displayed strong inhibition on the expression of the ArlRS regulon genes spx and mgrA in the S. aureus USA300 strain. Microplate assay and confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that tilmicosin at a sub-minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) had a potent inhibitory effect on biofilms formed by multiple S. aureus strains and a strong biofilm-forming strain of S. epidermidis. In addition, tilmicosin at three-fold of MIC disrupted USA300 mature biofilms and had a strong bactericidal effect on embedded bacteria. Furthermore, in a BioFlux flow biofilm assay, tilmicosin showed potent anti-biofilm activity and synergized with oxacillin against USA300.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Youhua Xie
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Pathogenic Microorganisms and Infection, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China (S.C.)
| | - Yang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Pathogenic Microorganisms and Infection, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China (S.C.)
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Yue Y, Chen K, Sun C, Ahmed S, Ojha SC. Antimicrobial peptidase lysostaphin at subinhibitory concentrations modulates staphylococcal adherence, biofilm formation, and toxin production. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:311. [PMID: 37884887 PMCID: PMC10601153 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-03052-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability of antimicrobial agents to affect microbial adherence to eukaryotic cell surfaces is a promising antivirulence strategy for combating the global threat of antimicrobial resistance. Inadequate use of antimicrobials has led to widespread instances of suboptimal antibiotic concentrations around infection sites. Therefore, we aimed to examine the varying effect of an antimicrobial peptidase lysostaphin (APLss) on staphylococcal adherence to host cells, biofilm biomass formation, and toxin production as a probable method for mitigating staphylococcal virulence. RESULTS Initially, soluble expression in E. coli and subsequent purification by immobilized-Ni2+ affinity chromatography (IMAC) enabled us to successfully produce a large quantity of highly pure ~ 28-kDa His-tagged mature APLss. The purified protein exhibited potent inhibitory effects against both methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant staphylococcal strains, with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 1 to 2 µg/mL, and ultrastructural analysis revealed that APLss-induced concentration-specific changes in the morphological architecture of staphylococcal surface membranes. Furthermore, spectrophotometric and fluorescence microscopy revealed that incubating staphylococcal strains with sub-MIC and MIC of APLss significantly inhibited staphylococcal adherence to human vaginal epithelial cells and biofilm biomass formation. Ultimately, transcriptional investigations revealed that APLss inhibited the expression of agrA (quorum sensing effector) and other virulence genes related to toxin synthesis. CONCLUSIONS Overall, APLss dose-dependently inhibited adhesion to host cell surfaces and staphylococcal-associated virulence factors, warranting further investigation as a potential anti-staphylococcal agent with an antiadhesive mechanism of action using in vivo models of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Yue
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Development of Endangered Crude Drugs in Northwest China, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ke Chen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
- Southwest Medical University, Jiangyang District, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Changfeng Sun
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
- Southwest Medical University, Jiangyang District, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Sarfraz Ahmed
- Wellman Centre for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA 02114, USA
| | - Suvash Chandra Ojha
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
- Southwest Medical University, Jiangyang District, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
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Azmi WA, Rizki AFM, Djuardi Y, Artika IM, Siregar JE. Molecular insights into artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum: An updated review. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2023:105460. [PMID: 37269964 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2023.105460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Malaria still poses a major burden on human health around the world, especially in endemic areas. Plasmodium resistance to several antimalarial drugs has been one of the major hindrances in control of malaria. Thus, the World Health Organization recommended artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) as a front-line treatment for malaria. The emergence of parasites resistant to artemisinin, along with resistant to ACT partner drugs, has led to ACT treatment failure. The artemisinin resistance is mostly related to the mutations in the propeller domain of the kelch13 (k13) gene that encodes protein Kelch13 (K13). The K13 protein has an important role in parasite reaction to oxidative stress. The most widely spread mutation in K13, with the highest degree of resistance, is a C580Y mutation. Other mutations, which are already identified as markers of artemisinin resistance, are R539T, I543T, and Y493H. The objective of this review is to provide current molecular insights into artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. The trending use of artemisinin beyond its antimalarial effect is described. Immediate challenges and future research directions are discussed. Better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying artemisinin resistance will accelerate implementation of scientific findings to solve problems with malarial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wihda Aisarul Azmi
- Eijkman Research Center for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia; Master's Programme in Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
| | - Andita Fitri Mutiara Rizki
- Eijkman Research Center for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia; Master's Programme in Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
| | - Yenny Djuardi
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
| | - I Made Artika
- Eijkman Research Center for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - Josephine Elizabeth Siregar
- Eijkman Research Center for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia.
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Jadimurthy R, Jagadish S, Nayak SC, Kumar S, Mohan CD, Rangappa KS. Phytochemicals as Invaluable Sources of Potent Antimicrobial Agents to Combat Antibiotic Resistance. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13040948. [PMID: 37109477 PMCID: PMC10145550 DOI: 10.3390/life13040948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants have been used for therapeutic purposes against various human ailments for several centuries. Plant-derived natural compounds have been implemented in clinics against microbial diseases. Unfortunately, the emergence of antimicrobial resistance has significantly reduced the efficacy of existing standard antimicrobials. The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared antimicrobial resistance as one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to discover new antimicrobial agents against drug-resistant pathogens. In the present article, we have discussed the importance of plant metabolites in the context of their medicinal applications and elaborated on their mechanism of antimicrobial action against human pathogens. The WHO has categorized some drug-resistant bacteria and fungi as critical and high priority based on the need to develope new drugs, and we have considered the plant metabolites that target these bacteria and fungi. We have also emphasized the role of phytochemicals that target deadly viruses such as COVID-19, Ebola, and dengue. Additionally, we have also elaborated on the synergetic effect of plant-derived compounds with standard antimicrobials against clinically important microbes. Overall, this article provides an overview of the importance of considering phytogenous compounds in the development of antimicrobial compounds as therapeutic agents against drug-resistant microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragi Jadimurthy
- Department of Studies in Molecular Biology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Swamy Jagadish
- Department of Studies in Molecular Biology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Siddaiah Chandra Nayak
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Sumana Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysore 570015, India
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Weaver AJ, Borgogna TR, O’Shea-Stone G, Peters TR, Copié V, Voyich J, Teintze M. 18β-Glycyrrhetinic Acid Induces Metabolic Changes and Reduces Staphylococcus aureus Bacterial Cell-to-Cell Interactions. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11060781. [PMID: 35740189 PMCID: PMC9220049 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11060781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The rise in bacterial resistance to common antibiotics has raised an increased need for alternative treatment strategies. The natural antibacterial product, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (GRA) has shown efficacy against community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), although its interactions against planktonic and biofilm modes of growth remain poorly understood. This investigation utilized biochemical and metabolic approaches to further elucidate the effects of GRA on MRSA. Prolonged exposure of planktonic MRSA cell cultures to GRA resulted in increased production of staphyloxanthin, a pigment known to exhibit antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing functions. Then, 1D 1H NMR analyses of intracellular metabolite extracts from MRSA treated with GRA revealed significant changes in intracellular polar metabolite profiles, including increased levels of succinate and citrate, and significant reductions in several amino acids, including branch chain amino acids. These changes reflect the MRSA response to GRA exposure, including potentially altering its membrane composition, which consumes branched chain amino acids and leads to significant energy expenditure. Although GRA itself had no significant effect of biofilm viability, it seems to be an effective biofilm disruptor. This may be related to interference with cell–cell aggregation, as treatment of planktonic MRSA cultures with GRA leads to a significant reduction in micro-aggregation. The dispersive nature of GRA on MRSA biofilms may prove valuable for treatment of such infections and could be used to increase susceptibility to complementary antibiotic therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan J. Weaver
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (A.J.W.J.); (G.O.-S.); (T.R.P.)
| | - Timothy R. Borgogna
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA;
| | - Galen O’Shea-Stone
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (A.J.W.J.); (G.O.-S.); (T.R.P.)
| | - Tami R. Peters
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (A.J.W.J.); (G.O.-S.); (T.R.P.)
| | - Valérie Copié
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (A.J.W.J.); (G.O.-S.); (T.R.P.)
- Correspondence: (V.C.); (J.V.); (M.T.); Tel.: +406-994-7244 (V.C.); +406-994-7184 (J.V.); +406-994-6515 (M.T.)
| | - Jovanka Voyich
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA;
- Correspondence: (V.C.); (J.V.); (M.T.); Tel.: +406-994-7244 (V.C.); +406-994-7184 (J.V.); +406-994-6515 (M.T.)
| | - Martin Teintze
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (A.J.W.J.); (G.O.-S.); (T.R.P.)
- Correspondence: (V.C.); (J.V.); (M.T.); Tel.: +406-994-7244 (V.C.); +406-994-7184 (J.V.); +406-994-6515 (M.T.)
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Nasser A, Dallal MMS, Jahanbakhshi S, Azimi T, Nikouei L. Staphylococcus aureus: biofilm formation and strategies against it. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2021; 23:664-678. [PMID: 34238148 DOI: 10.2174/1389201022666210708171123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The formation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm causes significant infections in the human body. Biofilm forms through the aggregation of bacterial species and brings about many complications. It mediates drug resistance and persistence and facilitates the recurrence of infection at the end of antimicrobial therapy. Biofilm formation goes through a series of steps to complete, and any interference in these steps can disrupt its formation. Such interference may occur at any stage of biofilm production, including attachment, monolayer formation, and accumulation. Interfering agents can act as quorum sensing inhibitors and interfere in the functionality of quorum sensing receptors, attachment inhibitors and affect the cell hydrophobicity. Among these inhibiting strategies, attachment inhibitors could serve as the best agents against biofilm formation. If pathogens abort the attachment, the following stages of biofilm formation, e.g., accumulation and dispersion, will fail to materialize. Inhibition at this stage leads to suppression of virulence factors and invasion. One of the best-known inhibitors is a chelator that collects metal, Fe+, Zn+, and magnesium critical for biofilm formation. These influential factors in the binding and formation of biofilm are investigated, and the coping strategy is discussed. This review examines the stages of biofilm formation and determines what factors interfere in the continuity of these steps. Finally, the inhibition strategies are investigated, reviewed, and discussed. Keywords: Biofilm, Staphylococcus, Biofilm inhibitor, Dispersion, Antibiofilm agent, EPS, PIA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nasser
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Shiva Jahanbakhshi
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Taher Azimi
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Nikouei
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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