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Chen S, Zhou W, Lai M. Synthetic Cathinones: Epidemiology, Toxicity, Potential for Abuse, and Current Public Health Perspective. Brain Sci 2024; 14:334. [PMID: 38671986 PMCID: PMC11048581 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14040334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, derived from cathinone found in the plant Catha edulis, represent the second largest and most frequently seized group of new psychoactive substances. They are considered as β-keto analogs of amphetamine, sharing pharmacological effects with amphetamine and cocaine. This review describes the neurotoxic properties of synthetic cathinones, encompassing their capacity to induce neuroinflammation, dysregulate neurotransmitter systems, and alter monoamine transporters and receptors. Additionally, it discusses the rewarding and abuse potential of synthetic cathinones drawing from findings obtained through various preclinical animal models, contextualized with other classical psychostimulants. The review also offers an overview of current abuse trends of synthetic cathinones on the illicit drug market, specifying the aspects covered, and underscores the risks they pose to public health. Finally, the review discusses public health initiatives and efforts to reduce the hazards of synthetic cathinones, including harm reduction methods, education, and current clinical management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Miaojun Lai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, The Affiliated Kangning Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315201, China; (S.C.); (W.Z.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo 315201, China
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Gearlds C, Bouldin JB, McKinney M, Schreiner S, Brown SD, Pond BB. Pharmacokinetics of Synthetic Cathinones Found in Bath Salts in Mouse Brain and Plasma Using High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 46:771-778. [PMID: 34427910 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-021-00712-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Approximately 10 years ago, "bath salts" became popular as legal alternatives to the psychostimulants cocaine and the amphetamines. These products contained synthetic cathinones, including 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone), and 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone). Most preclinical investigations have only assessed the effects of these synthetic cathinones independently; however, case reports and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) studies indicate that bath salts contain mixtures of these substances. In this study, we examine the pharmacokinetic interactions of the drug combination. We hypothesized that combined exposure to MDPV, mephedrone, and methylone would result in increased drug concentrations and enhanced total drug concentrations when compared to individual administration. METHODS Adolescent male Swiss-Webster mice were injected intraperitoneally with either 10 mg/kg MDPV, 10 mg/kg mephedrone, 10 mg/kg methylone, or 10 mg/kg combined MDPV, mephedrone, and methylone. Following injection, brains and plasma were collected at 1, 10, 15, 30, 60, and 120 min. Drugs were extracted via solid-phase extraction, and concentrations were determined using a previously published high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method. RESULTS All drugs crossed the blood-brain barrier quickly. For methylone, the maximal concentration (Cmax) and the total drug exposure [as represented by the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC)] were significantly higher when combined with mephedrone and MDPV in both matrices (2.89-fold increase for both Cmax and AUC with combined treatment). For mephedrone, the Cmax was unchanged, but the AUC in brain was increased when in combination by approximately 34%. Interestingly, for MDPV, the Cmax was unchanged, yet the AUC was higher when MDPV was administered individually (there was a 62% decrease in AUC with combined treatment). CONCLUSIONS The pharmacokinetics of methylone, mepedrone, and MDPV are altered when the drugs are used in combination. These data provide insight into the consequences of co-exposure to synthetic cathinones in popular bath salt products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Gearlds
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Jessica Brooke Bouldin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Mariah McKinney
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Shannon Schreiner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Stacy D Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Brooks B Pond
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA.
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Couto RAS, Coelho C, Mounssef B, Morais SFDA, Lima CD, dos Santos WTP, Carvalho F, Rodrigues CMP, Braga AAC, Gonçalves LM, Quinaz MB. 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) Sensing Based on Electropolymerized Molecularly Imprinted Polymers on Silver Nanoparticles and Carboxylated Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:353. [PMID: 33535439 PMCID: PMC7912732 DOI: 10.3390/nano11020353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is a harmful and controlled synthetic cathinone used as a psychostimulant drug and as sport-enhancing substance. A sensor was developed for the direct analysis of MDPV by transducing its oxidation signal by means of an electropolymerized molecularly imprinted polymer (e-MIP) built in-situ on the screen-printed carbon electrode's (SPCE) surface previously covered with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). Benzene-1,2-diamine was used as the functional monomer while the analyte was used as the template monomer. Each step of the sensor's development was studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a solution containing ferricyanide, however no redox probe was required for the actual MDPV measurements. The interaction between the poly(o-phenylenediamine) imprinted polymer and MDPV was studied by density-functional theory (DFT) methods. The SPCE-MWCNT-AgNP-MIP sensor responded adequately to the variation of MDPV concentration. It was shown that AgNPs enhanced the electrochemical signal by around a 3-fold factor. Making use of square-wave voltammetry (SWV) the developed sensor provided a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.8 μmol L-1. The analytical performance of the proposed sensor paves the way to the development of a portable device for MDPV on-site sensing to be applied in forensic and doping analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa A. S. Couto
- REQUIMTE, LAQV, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-213 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.S.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Constantino Coelho
- REQUIMTE, LAQV, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-213 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.S.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Bassim Mounssef
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil; (B.M.J.); (S.F.d.A.M.); (A.A.C.B.)
| | - Sara F. de A. Morais
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil; (B.M.J.); (S.F.d.A.M.); (A.A.C.B.)
| | - Camila D. Lima
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG 39100-000, Brazil;
| | - Wallans T. P. dos Santos
- Departamento de Farmácia, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG 39100-000, Brazil;
| | - Félix Carvalho
- REQUIMTE, UCIBIO, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-213 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Cecília M. P. Rodrigues
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal;
| | - Ataualpa A. C. Braga
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil; (B.M.J.); (S.F.d.A.M.); (A.A.C.B.)
| | - Luís Moreira Gonçalves
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil; (B.M.J.); (S.F.d.A.M.); (A.A.C.B.)
| | - M. Beatriz Quinaz
- REQUIMTE, LAQV, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-213 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.S.C.); (C.C.)
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Mégarbane B, Gamblin C, Roussel O, Bouaziz-Amar E, Chevillard L, Callebert J, Chen H, Morineau G, Laplanche JL, Etheve-Quelquejeu M, Liechti ME, Benturquia N. The neurobehavioral effects of the designer drug naphyrone - an experimental investigation with pharmacokinetics and concentration/effect relationship in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:1943-1957. [PMID: 32399634 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05510-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The recreational use of naphyrone, a potent synthetic cathinone with a pyrovalerone structure, has raised questions about possible deleterious neurobehavioral consequences. OBJECTIVE To investigate naphyrone-induced neurobehavioral effects and alterations in brain monoamines using two patterns of abuse, i.e., single and repeated (binge) use. METHODS We studied naphyrone dose/induced locomotor activity relationship at 3, 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg in mice. We investigated the effects of single (30 mg/kg; acute injection) versus repeated (30 mg/kg ×3/day for 3 days; binge injection) intraperitoneal naphyrone administration on locomotor activity, anxiety-like behavior, spatial recognition memory, anhedonia, behavioral despair, and social interaction. We measured post-mortem prefrontal cortex levels of monoamines and modeled naphyrone pharmacokinetics and concentration/locomotor effect relationship. RESULTS Both naphyrone administration patterns induced time-dependent increases in locomotor activity (p < 0.001 and p < 0.0001, respectively) and social interaction (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively) but did not alter spatial recognition memory or anhedonia. Acute naphyrone injection induced anxiety-like behavior (p < 0.01) and reduced resignation (p < 0.01) whereas binge administration induced non-anxiety-like behavior (p < 0.05) and did not alter behavioral despair. Both patterns increased the prefrontal cortex dopamine (p < 0.0001) and norepinephrine (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) but not serotonin content. Naphyrone pharmacokinetics followed a two-compartment model with an overall elimination half-life of 0.3 h. The naphyrone concentration/locomotor effect relationship was described by an additive Emax model with an EC50 of 672 μg/L. CONCLUSIONS Single naphyrone administration increases locomotor activity according to a direct concentration/effect relationship. The neurobehavioral effects after binge differs from those after single administration and are not explained by drug accumulation given the relatively fast elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Mégarbane
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris University, Paris, France.,Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France
| | | | - Olivier Roussel
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris University, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | | | | | | | - Huixiong Chen
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Benturquia
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris University, Paris, France. .,Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Paris University, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75006, Paris, France.
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Atehortua-Martinez LA, Masniere C, Campolongo P, Chasseigneaux S, Callebert J, Zwergel C, Mai A, Laplanche JL, Chen H, Etheve-Quelquejeu M, Mégarbane B, Benturquia N. Acute and chronic neurobehavioral effects of the designer drug and bath salt constituent 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone in the rat. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:392-405. [PMID: 30644332 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118822151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The substantial increase in use of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a popular recreational synthetic cathinone, has raised legitimate questions about its behavioral consequences and abuse liability. AIMS The aim of this study was to study MDPV-induced neurobehavioral effects in the rat, using different paradigms traditionally developed to study drug-attributed addictive properties. METHODS Different patterns of intraperitoneal 3 mg/kg MDPV administration were investigated. Consequences on rat horizontal locomotion and behavior of acute, intermittent (once daily dosing over 10 days), and binge (three-time daily dosing for 3 days) MDPV administration as well as challenge after 10 day MDPV withdrawal were studied. The dopamine receptor-D1 antagonist, SCH23390, was bilaterally infused in the nucleus accumbens to determine the role of D1-receptors in MDPV-related effects on the associative memory recall using the conditioned place preference paradigm. In addition, in a separate experience using western blot, we investigated the effects of chronic MDPV administration (four injections during 24 h) on ΔFosB expression in the nucleus accumbens, caudate putamen, and prefrontal cortex. RESULTS Acute MDPV administration increased stereotypies and open arm entries in the elevated plus maze while SCH23390 abolished MDPV-induced enhancing effects on memory consolidation. Intermittent MDPV administration resulted in sensitization of MDPV-induced locomotor effects and tolerance during the following challenge. With binge MDPV administration, locomotor activity was not altered despite tolerance onset after challenge. SCH23390 abolished MDPV-induced conditioned place preference. Chronic MDPV administration induced ΔFosB accumulation in the nucleus accumbens, caudate putamen, and prefrontal cortex. CONCLUSIONS Our findings clearly show that MDPV produces profound behavioral alterations mediated by the activation of the dopaminergic system similarly to other amphetamines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cyriaque Masniere
- 1 Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France
| | - Patrizia Campolongo
- 2 Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "V. Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome and IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Jacques Callebert
- 1 Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France
| | - Clemens Zwergel
- 3 Department of Chemistry and Technology of Drugs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonello Mai
- 3 Department of Chemistry and Technology of Drugs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Jean-Louis Laplanche
- 1 Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France
| | - Huixiong Chen
- 4 CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu
- 4 CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Mégarbane
- 1 Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France.,5 Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Nadia Benturquia
- 1 Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France
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“Polytox” synthetic cathinone abuse: A potential role for organic cation transporter 3 in combined cathinone-induced efflux. Neurochem Int 2019; 123:7-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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