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Kuczyńska K, Bartkowska K, Djavadian R, Zwierzyńska E, Wojcieszak J. MDPV (3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone) administered to mice during development of the central nervous system produces persistent learning and memory impairments. Pharmacol Rep 2024; 76:519-534. [PMID: 38722542 PMCID: PMC11126454 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-024-00599-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinones (SC) constitute the second most frequently abused class of new psychoactive substances. They serve as an alternative to classic psychostimulatory drugs of abuse, such as methamphetamine, cocaine, or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Despite the worldwide prevalence of SC, little is known about their long-term impact on the central nervous system. Here, we examined the effects of repeated exposure of mice during infancy, to 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a SC potently enhancing dopaminergic neurotransmission, on learning and memory in young adult mice. METHODS All experiments were performed on C57BL/6J male and female mice. Animals were injected with MDPV (10 or 20 mg/kg) and BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine, 25 mg/kg) during postnatal days 11-20, which is a crucial period for the development of their hippocampus. At the age of 12 weeks, mice underwent an assessment of various types of memory using a battery of behavioral tests. Afterward, their brains were removed for detection of BrdU-positive cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation with immunohistochemistry, and for measurement of the expression of synaptic proteins, such as synaptophysin and PSD95, in the hippocampus using Western blot. RESULTS Exposure to MDPV resulted in impairment of spatial working memory assessed with Y-maze spontaneous alternation test, and of object recognition memory. However, no deficits in hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory were found using the Morris water maze paradigm. Consistently, hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptogenesis were not interrupted. All observed MDPV effects were sex-independent. CONCLUSIONS MDPV administered repeatedly to mice during infancy causes learning and memory deficits that persist into adulthood but are not related to aberrant hippocampal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kuczyńska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Bartkowska
- Laboratory of Calcium Binding Proteins, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur St., 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ruzanna Djavadian
- Laboratory of Calcium Binding Proteins, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur St., 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Zwierzyńska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland
| | - Jakub Wojcieszak
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland
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Paškan M, Rimpelová S, Svobodová Pavlíčková V, Spálovská D, Setnička V, Kuchař M, Kohout M. 4-Isobutylmethcathinone-A Novel Synthetic Cathinone with High In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Strong Receptor Binding Preference of Enantiomers. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121495. [PMID: 36558946 PMCID: PMC9780888 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances and among them synthetic cathinones represent a significant threat to human health globally. However, within such a large pool of substances derived from a natural compound ((S)-cathinone), substances with important pharmaceutical uses can be identified, as already documented by bupropione. Therefore, this work aimed to find a synthetic pathway for a novel synthetic cathinone, namely 4-isobutylmethcathinone, and describe its spectroscopic properties and biological activity in vitro. Since cathinones comprise a chiral center in their structure, a method for chiral separation of the substance was elaborated using high-performance liquid chromatography on an analytical and preparative scale. Preparative enantioseparation on a polysaccharide column provided a sufficient amount of the drug for the chiroptical studies leading to the determination of the absolute configuration of enantiomers as well as for their subsequent in vitro cytotoxicity study. The cytotoxicity induced by 4-isobutylmethcathinone was determined in human cells derived from the urinary bladder (5637), neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y), microglia (HMC-3), and hepatocellular carcinoma (Hep G2), in which the IC50 values after 72 h reached an 18-65 µM concentration. This is significantly higher cytotoxicity in comparison with other synthetic cathinones. In the receptor binding studies, a significant difference in the agonistic effect on dopamine and adrenergic receptors of individual enantiomers was observed. The lack of binding affinity towards the serotonin receptors then relates 4-isobutylmethcathinone to the family of monoamine drugs, such as 3,4-methylenedioxymathamphetamine (ecstasy, MDMA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Paškan
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Silvie Rimpelová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimíra Svobodová Pavlíčková
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Dita Spálovská
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Setnička
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Kohout
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence:
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Goldsmith R, Aburahma A, Pachhain S, Choudhury SR, Phuntumart V, Larsen R, Ward CS, Sprague JE. Reversal of temperature responses to methylone mediated through bi-directional fecal microbiota transplantation between hyperthermic tolerant and naïve rats. Temperature (Austin) 2022; 9:318-330. [PMID: 36339093 PMCID: PMC9629120 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2022.2069965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The synthetic cathinone ("bath salt") methylone induces a hyperthermia response and with chronic administration tolerance to this hyperthermia has been reported. The microbiome-gut-brain axis has been implicated in multiple bodily systems and pathologies, and intentional manipulation of the gut-microbiome has yielded clinically significant results. Here, we examined the effects of bi-directional Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) between methylone-induced hyperthermic tolerant (MHT) and methylone-naïve (MN) rats. Rats treated with methylone once per week developed tolerance to methylone-induced hyperthermia by the fourth week. Once tolerant, daily bi-directional FMT between the two groups were performed for seven days prior to the next methylone treatment. The FMT abated the developed tolerance in the MHT group. When treated with methylone for the first time following FMT, recipient MN rats displayed significant tolerance to hyperthermia despite it being their initial drug treatment. Post-FMT, MHT rats displayed elevations in norepinephrine and expression of UCP1, UCP3 and TGR5 in brown adipose tissue, with reductions in expression of TGR5 and UCP3 in skeletal muscle. The pre- and post-FMT methylone tolerance phenotypes of transplant recipients are concurrent with changes in the relative abundance of several classes of Proteobacteria, most evident for Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria. MHT recipients demonstrated a marked increase in the relative proportion of the Firmicutes class Erysipelotrichia. These findings suggest that transplantation of gut-microbiomes can confer phenotypic responses to a drug and that the microbiome may be playing a major role in sympathomimetic-mediated hyperthermia. Abbreviations: 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA); methylone-induced hyperthermic tolerant (MHT); methylone-naïve (MN); fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT); uncoupling protein (UCP); subcutaneous (sc); intraperitoneal (ip); brown adipose tissue (BAT); skeletal muscle (SKM); sympathetic nervous system (SNS); norepinephrine (NE); quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR); quantification cycle (Cq); High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrochemical Detection (HPLC-EC); amplicon sequence variants (ASVs); principal coordinates analysis (PCoA); permutational multivariate analysis (PERMANOVA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Goldsmith
- The Ohio Attorney General’s Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Amal Aburahma
- The Ohio Attorney General’s Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Sudhan Pachhain
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Sayantan Roy Choudhury
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Vipa Phuntumart
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Ray Larsen
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Christopher S. Ward
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
| | - Jon E. Sprague
- The Ohio Attorney General’s Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA
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Enantioselectivity of Pentedrone and Methylone on Metabolic Profiling in 2D and 3D Human Hepatocyte-like Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030368. [PMID: 35337165 PMCID: PMC8953427 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentedrone and methylone can express stereoselectivity in toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic processes. Similarly, their chiral discrimination in metabolism, which was not yet evaluated, can result in different metabolic profiles and subsequent hepatotoxic effects. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess, for the first time, both the hepatic cytotoxic and metabolic profile of pentedrone and methylone enantiomers using physiologically relevant in vitro models. The hepatotoxicity of these compounds was observed in a concentration-dependent manner in human stem-cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) cultured under 3D (3D-HLCs) and 2D (2D-HLCs) conditions. Enantioselectivity, on the other hand, was only shown for pentedrone (1 mM) in 3D-HLCs, being R-(−)-pentedrone the most cytotoxic. Furthermore, the metabolic profile was initially evaluated in human liver microsomes (HLM) and further demonstrated in 3D-HLCs and 2D-HLCs applying a gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) technique. Methylone and pentedrone showed distinct and preferential metabolic routes for their enantiomers, resulting in the production of differentiated metabolites; R-(+)-methylone and R-(−)-pentedrone are the most metabolized enantiomers. In conclusion, the results demonstrated enantioselectivity for pentedrone and methylone in the metabolic processes, with enantioselectivity in cytotoxicity for pentedrone.
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Correia B, Fernandes J, Botica MJ, Ferreira C, Quintas A. Novel Psychoactive Substances: The Razor's Edge between Therapeutical Potential and Psychoactive Recreational Misuse. MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:medicines9030019. [PMID: 35323718 PMCID: PMC8950629 DOI: 10.3390/medicines9030019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are compounds of natural and synthetic origin, similar to traditional drugs of abuse. NPS are involved in a contemporary trend whose origin lies in a thinner balance between legitimate therapeutic drug research and legislative control. The contemporary NPS trend resulted from the replacement of MDMA by synthetic cathinones in 'ecstasy' during the 2000s. The most common NPS are synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones. Interestingly, during the last 50 years, these two classes of NPS have been the object of scientific research for a set of health conditions. METHODS Searches were conducted in the online database PubMed using boolean equations. RESULTS Synthetic cannabinoids displayed protective and therapeutic effects for inflammatory, neurodegenerative and oncologic pathologies, activating the immune system and reducing inflammation. Synthetic cathinones act similarly to amphetamine-type stimulants and can be used for depression and chronic fatigue. CONCLUSIONS Despite the scientific advances in this field of research, pharmacological application of NPS is being jeopardized by fatalities associated with their recreational use. This review addresses the scientific achievements of these two classes of NPS and the toxicological data, ending with a reflection on Illicit and NPS control frames.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Correia
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Joana Fernandes
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Maria João Botica
- Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPO), Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Carla Ferreira
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine of Porto University, Rua Professor Lima Basto, 1099-023 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Quintas
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Understanding the Role of Flavonoid Based Small Molecules in Modulating the Oncogenic Protein-Protein Interactions: A Quest for Therapeutic Arsenal. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Chen H, Wu F, Xu Y, Liu Y, Song L, Chen X, He Q, Liu W, Han Q, Zhang Z, Zou Y, Liu W. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of selective molecularly imprinted polymers for the fast determination of synthetic cathinones. RSC Adv 2021; 11:29752-29761. [PMID: 35492065 PMCID: PMC9044941 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra01330k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
As a kind of new psychoactive substance (NPS), synthetic cathinones have drawn great worldwide attention. In this study, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), as adsorbents for the extraction and determination of 4-methyldimethcathinone (4-MDMC), were first synthesized by coprecipitation polymerization. The physicochemical analyses of MIPs were successfully performed by XRD, FTIR, FESEM and TGA techniques. Furthermore, rebinding properties of temperature and pH dependence, and selectivity and reusability tests for MIPs and non-imprinted polymers (NIPs) were performed using an ultraviolet-visible spectrometer (UV-vis). The obtained results indicate that the imprinting efficiency has strong dependence on temperature and pH, and the optimal adsorption for targets is achieved under the condition of 318 K and pH = 6.0. This means that the combination between the polymers and 4-MDMC is a strong spontaneous and endothermic process. Compared with NIPs, MIPs exhibit prominent adsorption capacity (Qe = 9.77 mg g−1, 318 K). The selectivity coefficients (k) of MIPs for 4-MDMC, methylenedioxypentedrone (βk-MBDP), 4-ethylmethcathinone (4-EMC), methoxetamine (MXE) and tetrahydrofuranylfentanyl (THF-F) were found to be 1.70, 3.49, 7.14 and 5.82, respectively. Moreover, it was found that the adsorption equilibrium was achieved within 30 min. The aim of this work is the simple synthesis of MIPs and the optimal performance of the molecular recognition of 4-MDMC. Moreover, the synthesized MIPs can be easily regenerated and repeatedly used with negligible loss of efficiency (only 9.94% loss after six times adsorption–desorption tests). Satisfying recoveries in the range of 69.3–78.9% indicate that MIPs have good applicability for analyte removal from urine samples. Ultimately, this material shows great promise for the rapid extraction and separation of synthetic cathinones, which are dissolved in the liquid for the field of criminal sciences. Molecularly imprinted polymers, as an adsorbent for extraction and selective recognition of 4-methyldimethcathinone, were firstly synthesized through coprecipitation polymerization.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Fangsheng Wu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Yibing Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Lun Song
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Xiujuan Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Qun He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Wei Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Qiaoying Han
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Zihua Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Yun Zou
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology 803 Zhongshan North 1st Road Shanghai 200083 P. R. China +86-21-22028361 +86-21-22028361.,Shanghai Yuansi Standard Science and Technology Co., Ltd. 196 Ouyang Road Shanghai 200080 P. R. China
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Docherty JR, Alsufyani HA. Pharmacology of Drugs Used as Stimulants. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S53-S69. [PMID: 34396557 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulant, cardiovascular, and temperature actions of stimulants involve adrenergic (norepinephrine), dopaminergic (dopamine), and serotonergic (serotonin) pathways. Stimulants such as amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), or mephedrone can act on the neuronal membrane monoamine transporters NET, DAT, and SERT and/or the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 to inhibit reuptake of neurotransmitter or cause release by reverse transport. Stimulants may have additional effects involving pre- and postsynaptic/junctional receptors for norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin and other receptors. As a result, stimulants may have a wide range of possible actions. Agents with cocaine or MDMA-like actions can induce serious and potentially fatal adverse events via thermodysregulatory, cardiovascular, or other mechanisms. MDMA-like stimulants may cause hyperthermia that can be life threathening. Recreational users of stimulants should be aware of the dangers of hyperthermia in a rave/club environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hadeel A Alsufyani
- Department of Physiology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Gonçalves JL, Alves VL, Aguiar J, Caldeira MJ, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. Structure Assignment of Seized Products Containing Cathinone Derivatives Using High Resolution Analytical Techniques. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11030144. [PMID: 33673683 PMCID: PMC7997216 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11030144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The innovation of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) market requires the rapid identification of new substances that can be a risk to public health, in order to reduce the damage from their use. Twelve seized products suspected to contain illicit substances were analyzed by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Synthetic cathinones (SCat) were found in all products, either as a single component or in mixtures. Infrared spectra of all products were consistent with the molecular structure of SCat, showing an intense absorption band at 1700–1674 cm−1, corresponding to the carbonyl stretching, a medium/strong peak at 1605–1580 cm−1, indicating stretching vibrations in the aromatic ring (C=C) and bands with relative low intensity at frequencies near 2700–2400 cm−1, corresponding to an amine salt. It was possible to identify a total of eight cathinone derivatives by GC-MS and NMR analysis: 4′-methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (MPHP), α-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (α-PHP), 3-fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC), methedrone, methylone, buphedrone, N-ethylcathinone, and pentedrone. Among the adulterants found in these samples, caffeine was the most frequently detected substance, followed by ethylphenidate. These results highlight the prevalence of SCat in seized materials of the Portuguese market. Reference standards are usually required for confirmation, but when reference materials are not available, the combination of complementary techniques is fundamental for a rapid and an unequivocal identification of such substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- João L. Gonçalves
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (V.L.A.); (J.A.)
- Correspondence: (J.L.G.); (J.S.C.)
| | - Vera L. Alves
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (V.L.A.); (J.A.)
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (V.L.A.); (J.A.)
| | - Maria J. Caldeira
- Laboratório de Polícia Científica da Polícia Judiciária, Novo edifício-sede da Polícia Judiciária, Rua Gomes Freire, 1169-007 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Helena M. Teixeira
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P., Polo das Ciências de Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Celas, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S. Câmara
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (V.L.A.); (J.A.)
- Faculdade de Ciências Exatas e da Engenharia, Campus da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
- Correspondence: (J.L.G.); (J.S.C.)
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Krotulski AJ, Papsun DM, Chronister CW, Homan J, Crosby MM, Hoyer J, Goldberger BA, Logan BK. Eutylone Intoxications-An Emerging Synthetic Stimulant in Forensic Investigations. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:8-20. [PMID: 33325503 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic stimulants are the largest class of novel psychoactive substances identified each year by forensic laboratories internationally. While hundreds of these drugs appear in drug powders, only a few proliferate in use among forensically relevant populations and eventually emerge in postmortem and clinical investigations. Beta-keto-methylenedioxyamphetamines (i.e., novel psychoactive substances with names ending in "ylone") are currently the most popular subclass of synthetic stimulants. Leading up to its federal scheduling in 2018, N-ethyl pentylone was the most encountered synthetic stimulant. The popularity of N-ethyl pentylone declined once it was scheduled, but it was quickly replaced by eutylone (bk-EBDB), a structurally related analog from the same family. In cases encountered between January 2019 and April 2020, eutylone was quantitatively confirmed in 83 forensic investigations, including postmortem cases and driving under the influence of drugs cases. Matrix types included blood, urine and tissue. Eutylone was identified in cases submitted from 13 states, demonstrating proliferation around the United States; Florida accounted for 60% of the positive cases. The mean concentration of eutylone in postmortem blood was 1,020 ng/mL (standard deviation = ±2,242 ng/mL; median = 110 ng/mL, range = 1.2-11,000 ng/mL, n = 67). The mean concentration of eutylone in blood from driving under the influence of drugs cases was 942 ng/mL (standard deviation = ±1,407 ng/mL; median = 140 ng/mL, range = 17-3,600 ng/mL, n = 7). This report includes cause and manner of death data for 22 postmortem cases. Further analysis of authentic human specimens revealed the presence of three eutylone metabolites, including one unique biomarker and one metabolite in common with butylone. Laboratories should be aware that eutylone may be present in cases of suspected Ecstasy, "Molly" and/or methylenedioxymethamphetamine use, causing or contributing to impairment or death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | | | - Chris W Chronister
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Joseph Homan
- NMS Labs, Toxicology Department, Horsham, PA 19044, USA
| | - Michele M Crosby
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606, USA
| | - Jennifer Hoyer
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Bruce A Goldberger
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- NMS Labs, Toxicology Department, Horsham, PA 19044, USA
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From street to lab: in vitro hepatotoxicity of buphedrone, butylone and 3,4-DMMC. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1443-1462. [PMID: 33550444 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-02990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are among the most popular new psychoactive substances, being abused for their stimulant properties, which are similar to those of amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Considering that the liver is a likely target for cathinones-induced toxicity, and for their metabolic activation/detoxification, we aimed to determine the hepatotoxicity of three commonly abused synthetic cathinones: butylone, α-methylamino-butyrophenone (buphedrone) and 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC). We characterized their cytotoxic profile in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) and in the HepaRG and HepG2 cell lines. PRH was the most sensitive cell model, showing the lowest EC50 values for all three substances (0.158 mM for 3,4-DMMC; 1.21 mM for butylone; 1.57 mM for buphedrone). Co-exposure of PRH to the synthetic cathinones and CYP450 inhibitors (selective and non-selective) proved that hepatic metabolism reduced the toxicity of buphedrone but increased that of butylone and 3,4-DMMC. All compounds were able to increase oxidative stress, disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis and inducing apoptotic and necrotic features, while also increasing the occurrence of acidic vesicular organelles in PRH, compatible with autophagic activation. In conclusion, butylone, buphedrone and 3,4-DMMC have hepatotoxic potential, and their toxicity lies in the interference with a number of homeostatic processes, while being influenced by their metabolic fate.
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Abstract
Synthetic drugs of abuse contain various psychoactive substances. These substances have recently emerged as novel drugs of abuse in public; thus, they are known as novel psychoactive substances (NPS). As these compounds are artificially synthesized in a laboratory, they are also called designer drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones are the two primary classes of NPS or designer drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids, also known as "K2" or "Spice," are potent agonists of the cannabinoid receptors. Synthetic cathinones, known as "Bath salts," are beta-keto amphetamine derivatives. These compounds can cause severe intoxication, including overdose deaths. NPS are accessible locally and online. NPS are scheduled in the US and other countries, but the underground chemists keep modifying the chemical structure of these compounds to avoid legal regulation; thus, these compounds have been evolving rapidly. These drugs are not detectable by traditional drug screening, and thus, these substances are mainly abused by young individuals and others who wish to avoid drug detection. These compounds are analyzed primarily by mass spectrometry.
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Synthetic cathinones – From natural plant stimulant to new drug of abuse. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 875:173012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Zhou X, Bouitbir J, Liechti ME, Krähenbühl S, Mancuso RV. Hyperthermia Increases Neurotoxicity Associated with Novel Methcathinones. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040965. [PMID: 32295288 PMCID: PMC7227000 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperthermia is one of the severe acute adverse effects that can be caused by the ingestion of recreational drugs, such as methcathinones. The effect of hyperthermia on neurotoxicity is currently not known. The primary aim of our study was therefore to investigate the effects of hyperthermia (40.5 °C) on the neurotoxicity of methcathinone (MC), 4-chloromethcathinone (4-CMC), and 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC) in SH-SY5Y cells. We found that 4-CMC and 4-MMC were cytotoxic (decrease in cellular ATP and plasma membrane damage) under both hyper- (40.5 °C) and normothermic conditions (37 °C), whereby cells were more sensitive to the toxicants at 40.5 °C. 4-CMC and 4-MMC impaired the function of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and increased mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in SH-SY5Y cells, which were accentuated under hyperthermic conditions. Hyperthermia was associated with a rapid expression of the 70 kilodalton heat shock protein (Hsp70), which partially prevented cell death after 6 h of exposure to the toxicants. After 24 h of exposure, autophagy was stimulated by the toxicants and by hyperthermia but could only partially prevent cell death. In conclusion, hyperthermic conditions increased the neurotoxic properties of methcathinones despite the stimulation of protective mechanisms. These findings may be important for the understanding of the mechanisms and clinical consequences of the neurotoxicity associated with these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhou
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jamal Bouitbir
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-61-265-4715
| | - Riccardo V. Mancuso
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
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Sorribes-Soriano A, Sánchez-Martínez S, Arráez-González R, Esteve-Turrillas F, Armenta S. Methylone determination in oral fluid using microextraction by packed sorbent coupled to ion mobility spectrometry. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2019.104504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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16
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Synthetic psychoactive cathinones: hypothermia and reduced lethality compared to methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 191:172871. [PMID: 32061662 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic psychoactive cathinones (SPCs) are drugs with psychostimulant and entactogenic properties like methamphetamine (MA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Despite clinical reports of human overdose, it remains to be determined if SPCs have greater propensity for adverse effects than MA or MDMA. OBJECTIVES To determine whether the SPCs cathinone (CAT), methcathinone (MCAT), mephedrone (MMC), and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) have lower LD50 values than MA or MDMA. METHODS Male and female C57Bl/6J mice received single injections of one of 6 doses of a test drug (0-160 mg/kg IP). Temperature and behavioral observations were taken every 20 min for 2 h followed by euthanasia of surviving mice. Organs were weighed and evaluated for histopathological changes. RESULTS LD50 values for MA and MDMA, 84.5 and 100.9 mg/kg respectively, were similar to previous observations. The LD50 for MMC was 118.8 mg/kg, but limited lethality was observed for other SPCs (CAT, MCAT, MDPV), so LD50 values could not be calculated. For all drugs, death was associated with seizure, when it was observed. Rather than hyperthermia, dose-dependent hypothermia was observed for MMC, MDPV, CAT, and MCAT. Contrary to initial expectations, none of the SPCs studied here had LD50 values lower than MA or MDMA. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that, under the conditions studied here: (1) SPCs exhibit less lethality than MA and MDMA; (2) SPCs impair thermoregulation; (3) effects of SPCs on temperature appear to be independent of effects on lethality.
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Schifano F, Napoletano F, Arillotta D, Zangani C, Gilgar L, Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Vento A. The clinical challenges of synthetic cathinones. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:410-419. [PMID: 31674690 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Within the new psychoactive substances (NPS) scenario, several hundred different molecules, mostly including synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones, have been identified so far. The aims of the paper were to: (i) identify the number of synthetic cathinones mentioned in a range of psychonaut, NPS-related, online sources; and (ii) describe the associated acute/long term clinical scenario and the related treatment/management plan. METHODS After about 18 months of operation and exclusion of false positives/duplicates, some 4204 unique NPS molecules were included in the NPSfinder® crawling/navigating software database. Most popular NPS included: 1265 psychedelic phenethylamines (30.1%; confidence interval [CI] 95%: 28.7-31.5%); 1253 synthetic cannabinoids (29.8%; CI 95%: 28.4-31.2%); 429 synthetic opioids (10.2%; CI 95%: 9.3-10.2%); and 171 synthetic cathinones (4.1%; CI 95% 3.5-4.7%). Conversely, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction databases respectively included 169 and 140 cathinones. Overall, the 3 databases reported some 222 synthetic cathinones, and 41 were uniquely identified by the NPSfinder®. RESULTS In terms of clinical scenarios, synthetic cathinone ingestion is initially associated with stimulant effects; however, psychopathological disturbances, violence, suicidal behaviour, hyperthermia, coma and death have also been described. CONCLUSION The proportion of cathinones commented on by psychonaut fora appeared to be relatively small, and similar to those reported by both the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. This may be associated with a recent significant decline in both cathinone-related consumption and acute medical presentation. Due to their complex behavioural and medical toxicity issues, healthcare professionals should be, however, be educated to recognise the signs and symptoms of NPS, including synthetic cathinone, ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Flavia Napoletano
- East London Foundation Trust (ELFT), Homerton University Hospital, London, UK
| | - Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Caroline Zangani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Liam Gilgar
- Gabalfa Clinic, Cardiff and Vale NHS Health Board, Cardiff, UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School; Institute of Life Sciences; Swansea, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Addictions' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy.,Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy.,Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy
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19
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Gonçalves JL, Alves VL, Aguiar J, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. Synthetic cathinones: an evolving class of new psychoactive substances. Crit Rev Toxicol 2019; 49:549-566. [PMID: 31747318 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2019.1679087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones (SCat) are amphetamine-like psychostimulants that emerged onto drug markets as "legal" alternatives to illicit drugs such as ecstasy, cocaine, and amphetamines. Usually they are sold as "bath salts," "plant food," or "research chemicals," and rapidly gained popularity amongst drugs users due to their potency, low cost, and availability. In addition, internet drug sales have been replacing the old way of supplying drugs of abuse, contributing to their rapid spread. Despite the legislative efforts to control SCat, new derivatives continue to emerge on the recreational drugs market and their abuse still represents a serious public health issue. To date, about 150 SCat have been identified on the clandestine drugs market, which are one of the largest groups of new psychoactive substances (NPS) monitored by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Similar to the classical stimulants, SCat affect the levels of catecholamines in the central nervous system, which results in their psychological, behavioral and toxic effects. Generally, the effects of SCat greatly differ from drug to drug and relatively little information is available about their pharmacology. The present work provides a review on the development of SCat as substances of abuse, current patterns of abuse and their legal status, chemical classification, known mechanisms of action, and their toxicological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- João L Gonçalves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Vera L Alves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, IP, Delegação Centro, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.,Faculdade de Ciências Exactas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
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Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity of the new psychoactive substance 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC). Forensic Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-019-00494-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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