Standard operating procedure for the collection and preparation of voucher plant specimens for use in the nutraceutical industry

Ethnobotanical study of nutraceutical plants used to manage opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS in Acholi sub-region, Northern Uganda

BACKGROUND

Nutraceutical plants play a potential role as supportive treatment with antiretroviral drugs in the management of opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS. There is limited documentation of nutraceutical plants in Northern Uganda and limited literature addressing processes to be adopted for quality assurance of herbal formulations in Uganda. This study aimed to document plant species with nutritional and medicinal properties used for managing opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS by traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs), who included professional herbalists, herbal farmers and herbal sellers in Acholi sub region, Northern Uganda.

METHODS

An ethnobotanical study was carried out in Amuru, Gulu and Pader districts, Northern Uganda. Cross-sectional data were collected using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. A total of four hundred (378 women and 22 men) informants were selected. Data were collected using semistructured interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, familiarity index (FI), fidelity level (FL) and informant consensus factor (ICF).

RESULTS

This study recorded a total of 84 nutraceutical plant species, which are used to manage opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS. Most abundant families were Leguminoceae, Asteraceae and Solanaceae. Six nutraceutical plants that had higher fidelity level and familiarity index values included Momordica foetida Schumach, Erigeron floribundus (Kunth) Sch. Bip, Mangifera indica L, Cajanus cajan L. Millsp, Eucalyptus globulus Labill and Cucurbita pepo L. Respondents' knowledge on nutraceutical plants had a positive significant correlation with age (R2 = 0.0524, p ≤ 0.01). The popular mode of preparation are decoctions/boiling in water (70%), while the most used route of administration is oral (76%). TMPs tried to ensure that during collection and processing, plant materials were free from contamination. TMPs reported limited knowledge on preservation techniques.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the availability and diversity of nutraceutical plants in Uganda and reports methods of processing and administration used by TMPs. Both men and women used nutraceutical plants to manage opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS and showed great extent of their traditional knowledge. Most of the nutraceutical plants in study area are wild and abundant; however, high percentage use of plant roots and bark threatens the sustainable use from the wild.

Acaricidal and anthelmintic efficacy of Ocimum basilicum essential oil and its major constituents estragole and linalool, with insights on acetylcholinesterase inhibition

The present study evaluated the acaricidal and anthelmintic action of Ocimum basilicum essential oil and its main components against ticks and helminth parasites as well as to relate these activities to acetylcholinesterase inhibition. The in vitro acaricidal activity against Hyalomma scupense was evaluated by Adult Immersion Test (AIT) and Larval Packet Test (LPT), while the in vivo nematocidal potential was assessed in laboratory mice infected with Heligmosomoides polygyrus using fecal egg count reduction (FECR) and total worm count reduction (TWCR). Chemical analyzes were performed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Estragole (80.87%) and linalool (16.12%) were the major compounds detected in O. basilicum essential oil. In the AIT assay for H. scupense tick, LC₅₀ of estragole, O. basilicum oil and linalool were 0.73, 0.81 and 0.97 mg/mL, respectively. In LPT, estragole, linalool and essential oil showed LC₅₀ of 0.22, 1.11 and 1.19 mg/mL, respectively. Against He. polygyrus, the highest activity was observed with estragole administered at 100 mg/kg body weight (bwt), which resulted in a FECR of 90.86% and a TWCR of 82.91%. The O. basilicum essential oil, estragole and linalool inhibited the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) extracted from both parasites species. Estragole was found the most active AChE inhibitor with IC₅₀ of 0.176 mg/mL for H. scupense and IC₅₀ of 0.138 mg/mL for He. polygyrus larvae. The results of the present study pointed out the importance of the traditional use of O. basilicum as an eco-friendly alternative against endo and ectoparasites. In vivo trials should also be conducted to confirm the above-mentioned activities and to assure the safe use of natural plants.

Improving natural product research translation: From source to clinical trial

While great interest in health effects of natural product (NP) including dietary supplements and foods persists, promising preclinical NP research is not consistently translating into actionable clinical trial (CT) outcomes. Generally considered the gold standard for assessing safety and efficacy, CTs, especially phase III CTs, are costly and require rigorous planning to optimize the value of the information obtained. More effective bridging from NP research to CT was the goal of a September, 2018 transdisciplinary workshop. Participants emphasized that replicability and likelihood of successful translation depend on rigor in experimental design, interpretation, and reporting across the continuum of NP research. Discussions spanned good practices for NP characterization and quality control; use and interpretation of models (computational through in vivo) with strong clinical predictive validity; controls for experimental artefacts, especially for in vitro interrogation of bioactivity and mechanisms of action; rigorous assessment and interpretation of prior research; transparency in all reporting; and prioritization of research questions. Natural product clinical trials prioritized based on rigorous, convergent supporting data and current public health needs are most likely to be informative and ultimately affect public health. Thoughtful, coordinated implementation of these practices should enhance the knowledge gained from future NP research.

Guizhi Fuling Wan for uterine fibroids: A systematic review of in vivo studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The therapeutic effects of Guizhi Fuling Wan (GFW) on uterine fibroids have been tested on various animal models, but to date, the findings of these studies have not been comprehensively synthesised. This study aimed to evaluate the preclinical effects of GFW on uterine fibroids in different animal models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty databases were searched from their earliest recorded publications to March 2019 to identify in vivo studies of non-modified GFW compared with no treatment for animal models with uterine fibroids. The methodological quality was assessed using the ARRIVE guidelines. Two groups of outcome measures were evaluated: fibroid characteristics (uterine weight, coefficient or smooth muscle thickness) and sex hormones indexes (oestradiol, progesterone or the gene expression of their receptors).

RESULTS

A total of 21 studies (22 experiments) involving 461 female animals met the eligibility criteria. The quality of the included studies scored at 14.24 ± 1.00 out of 20. Four animal species were used and induced by oestrogen or oestrogen combined with progesterone, including guinea pig (n = 20), rats (n = 385, SD and Wister) and mice (n = 56). Overall, the available evidence suggests that GFW has potentially beneficial effects over placebo on both fibroid characteristics and sex hormones in SD rats (except progesterone), Wister rats (except progesterone receptor [PR] gene expression) and ICR mice (except PR gene expression). GFW appears to reduce uterine weight and smooth muscle thickness in the guinea pig, but no data on sex hormone index was available.

CONCLUSION

Noting the unevenly distributed covariates of animal model types, experimental evidence suggested that GFW may be a promising intervention for the management of uterine fibroids in animal models. Future natural product studies should be optimised by reporting the voucher specimen. More studies on composition and providing evidence of the involvement of relevant cell signalling pathways are required.

Saposhnikoviae divaricata: a phytochemical, pharmacological, and pharmacokinetic review

Saposhnikoviae divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk (SD) is a traditional Chinese herb commonly used to treat clinical conditions such as rheumatism and allergic rhinitis. This review article evaluates a collection of works on in vitro and biochemical studies of SD. The discourse on the diverse class of chromones and coumarins in SD offers an insight to the pharmacological effects of these bioactive constituents as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, immunoregulatory, antioxidative, and anti-proliferative agents. It is highlighted that there is a structural relationship between the constituents and bioactive activities, which in effect provides a valid reasoning and reaffirm the use of SD in the treatment of the pathologies in Chinese medicine.

The Challenge of Reproducibility and Accuracy in Nutrition Research: Resources and Pitfalls

Inconsistent and contradictory results from nutrition studies conducted by different investigators continue to emerge, in part because of the inherent variability of natural products, as well as the unknown and therefore uncontrolled variables in study populations and experimental designs. Given these challenges inherent in nutrition research, it is critical for the progress of the field that researchers strive to minimize variability within studies and enhance comparability between studies by optimizing the characterization, control, and reporting of products, reagents, and model systems used, as well as the rigor and reporting of experimental designs, protocols, and data analysis. Here we describe some recent developments relevant to research on plant-derived products used in nutrition research, highlight some resources for optimizing the characterization and reporting of research using these products, and describe some of the pitfalls that may be avoided by adherence to these recommendations.

Quality assessment of medicinal herbs and their extracts: Criteria and prerequisites for consistent safety and efficacy of herbal medicines

Ingredients of commercial herbal medicines are assessed for quality primarily to ensure their safety. However, as complex mixtures of different groups of plant secondary metabolites, retention of overall phytochemical consistency of herbal medicines is pivotal to their efficacy. Authenticity and homogeneity of the herbs and strict regimes of physical processing and extract manufacturing are critical factors to maintain phytochemical consistency in commercial products. To ensure both safety and efficacy of herbal medicines, implementation of and adherence to good agricultural and collection practice (GACP), good plant authentication and identification practice (GPAIP), good manufacturing practice (GMP) before and during the manufacturing process, and good laboratory practice (GLP) in analysis are necessary. Establishment and application of harmonized multilaboratory-validated analytical methods and transparency in the supply (value) chain through vendor audits are additional requirements in quality assurance. In this article, we outline steps of a comprehensive quality assurance paradigm aimed at achieving and maintaining safety, consistent phytochemical composition, and clinical efficacy of ingredients of herbal medicines. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Botanicals for Epilepsy.

Pro-toxic dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids in the traditional Andean herbal medicine "asmachilca"

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Asmachilca is a Peruvian medicinal herb preparation ostensibly derived from Aristeguietia gayana (Wedd.) R.M. King & H. Rob. (Asteraceae: Eupatorieae). Decoctions of the plant have a reported bronchodilation effect that is purported to be useful in the treatment of respiratory allergies, common cold and bronchial asthma. However, its attractiveness to pyrrolizidine alkaloid-pharmacophagous insects indicated a potential for toxicity for human consumers.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To determine if commercial asmachilca samples, including fully processed herbal teas, contain potentially toxic 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two brands of "Asmachilca" herbal tea bags and four other commercial samples of botanical materials for preparing asmachilca medicine were extracted and analyzed using HPLC-esi(+)MS and MS/MS for the characteristic retention times and mass spectra of known dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids. Other suspected dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids were tentatively identified based on MS/MS profiles and high resolution molecular weight determinations. Further structure elucidation of isolated alkaloids was based on 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Asmachilca attracted many species of moths which are known to pharmacophagously gather dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids. Analysis of 5 of the asmachilca samples revealed the major presence of the dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid monoesters rinderine and supinine, and their N-oxides. The 6th sample was very similar but did not contain supinine or its N-oxide. Small quantities of other dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid monoesters, including echinatine and intermedine, were also detected. In addition, two major metabolites, previously undescribed, were isolated and identified as dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid monoesters with two "head-to-tail" linked viridifloric and/or trachelanthic acids. Estimates of total pyrrolizidine alkaloid and N-oxide content in the botanical components of asmachilca varied from 0.4% to 0.9% (w/dw, dry weight) based on equivalents of lycopsamine. The mean pyrrolizidine alkaloid content of a hot water infusion of a commercial asmachilca herbal tea bag was 2.2±0.5mg lycopsamine equivalents. Morphological and chemical evidence showed that asmachilca is prepared from different plant species.

CONCLUSIONS

All asmachilca samples and the herbal tea infusions contained toxicologically-relevant concentrations of pro-toxic 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid esters and, therefore, present a risk to the health of humans. This raises questions concerning the ongoing unrestricted availability of such products on the Peruvian and international market. In addition to medical surveys of consumers of asmachilca, in the context of chronic disease potentially associated with ingestion of the dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids, the botanical origins of asmachilca preparations require detailed elucidation.

DNA barcodes from four loci provide poor resolution of taxonomic groups in the genus Crataegus

DNA barcodes can facilitate identification of organisms especially when morphological characters are limited or unobservable. To what extent this potential is realized in specific groups of plants remains to be determined. Libraries of barcode sequences from well-studied authoritatively identified plants represented by herbarium voucher specimens are needed in order for DNA barcodes to serve their intended purpose, where this is possible, and to understand the reasons behind their failure to do so, when this occurs. We evaluated four loci, widely regarded as universal DNA barcodes for plants, for their utility in hawthorn species identification. Three plastid regions, matK, rbcLa and psbA-trnH, and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA discriminate only some of the species of Crataegus that can be recognized on the basis of their morphology etc. This is, in part, because in Rosaceae tribe Maleae most individual plastid loci yield relatively little taxonomic resolution and, in part, because the effects of allopolyploidization have not been eliminated by concerted evolution of the ITS regions. Although individual plastid markers provided generally poor resolution of taxonomic groups in Crataegus, a few species were notable exceptions. In contrast, analyses of concatenated sequences of the 3 plastid barcode loci plus 11 additional plastid loci gave a well-resolved maternal phylogeny. In the ITS2 tree, different individuals of some species formed groups with taxonomically unrelated species. This is a sign of lineage sorting due to incomplete concerted evolution in ITS2. Incongruence between the ITS2 and plastid trees is best explained by hybridization between different lineages within the genus. In aggregate, limited between-species variation in plastid loci, hybridization and a lack of concerted evolution in ITS2 all combine to limit the utility of standard barcoding markers in Crataegus. These results have implications for authentication of hawthorn materials in natural health products.

Selection and authentication of botanical materials for the development of analytical methods

Herbal products, for example botanical dietary supplements, are widely used. Analytical methods are needed to ensure that botanical ingredients used in commercial products are correctly identified and that research materials are of adequate quality and are sufficiently characterized to enable research to be interpreted and replicated. Adulteration of botanical material in commerce is common for some species. The development of analytical methods for specific botanicals, and accurate reporting of research results, depend critically on correct identification of test materials. Conscious efforts must therefore be made to ensure that the botanical identity of test materials is rigorously confirmed and documented through preservation of vouchers, and that their geographic origin and handling are appropriate. Use of material with an associated herbarium voucher that can be botanically identified is always ideal. Indirect methods of authenticating bulk material in commerce, for example use of organoleptic, anatomical, chemical, or molecular characteristics, are not always acceptable for the chemist's purposes. Familiarity with botanical and pharmacognostic literature is necessary to determine what potential adulterants exist and how they may be distinguished.

LC-MS/MS Identification of a Bromelain Peptide Biomarker from Ananas comosus Merr

Bromelain (Br) is a cysteine peptidase (GenBank AEH26024.1) from pineapple, with over 40 years of clinical use. The constituents mediating its anti-inflammatory activity are not thoroughly characterized and no peptide biomarker exists. Our objective is to characterize Br raw material and identify peptides in the plasma of Br treated mice. After SDS-PAGE in-gel digestion, Br (VN#3507; Middletown, CT, USA) peptides were analyzed via LC/MS/MS using 95% protein probability, 95% peptide probability, and a minimum peptide number = 5. Br spiked mouse plasma (1 ug/ul) and plasma from i.p. treated mice (12 mg/kg) were assessed using SRM. In Br raw material, we identified seven proteins: four proteases, one jacalin-like lectin, and two protease inhibitors. In Br spiked mouse plasma, six proteins (ananain, bromelain inhibitor, cysteine proteinase AN11, FB1035 precursor, FBSB precursor, and jacalin-like lectin) were identified. Using LC/MS/MS, we identified the unique peptide, DYGAVNEVK, derived from FB1035, in the plasma of i.p. Br treated mice. The spectral count of this peptide peaked at 6 hrs and was undetectable by 24 hrs. In this study, a novel Br peptide was identified in the plasma of treated mice for the first time. This Br peptide could serve as a biomarker to standardize the therapeutic dose and maximize clinical utility.

Implementing a "quality by design" approach to assure the safety and integrity of botanical dietary supplements

Natural products have provided a basis for health care and medicine to humankind since the beginning of civilization. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 80% of the world population still relies on herbal medicines for health-related benefits. In the United States, over 42% of the population claimed to have used botanical dietary supplements to either augment their current diet or to "treat" or "prevent" a particular health-related issue. This has led to the development of a burgeoning industry in the U.S. ($4.8 billion per year in 2008) to supply dietary supplements to the consumer. However, many commercial botanical products are poorly defined scientifically, and the consumer must take it on faith that the supplement they are ingesting is an accurate representation of what is listed on the label, and that it contains the purportedly "active" constituents they seek. Many dietary supplement manufacturers, academic research groups, and governmental organizations are progressively attempting to construct a better scientific understanding of natural products, herbals, and botanical dietary supplements that have co-evolved with Western-style pharmaceutical medicines. However, a deficiency of knowledge is still evident, and this issue needs to be addressed in order to achieve a significant level of safety, efficacy, and quality for commercial natural products. The authors contend that a "quality by design" approach for botanical dietary supplements should be implemented in order to ensure the safety and integrity of these products. Initiating this approach with the authentication of the starting plant material is an essential first step, and in this review several techniques that can aid in this endeavor are outlined.

Traditional Medicine Collection Tracking System (TM-CTS): a database for ethnobotanically driven drug-discovery programs

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnobotanically driven drug-discovery programs include data related to many aspects of the preparation of botanical medicines, from initial plant collection to chemical extraction and fractionation. The Traditional Medicine Collection Tracking System (TM-CTS) was created to organize and store data of this type for an international collaborative project involving the systematic evaluation of commonly used Traditional Chinese Medicinal plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The system was developed using domain-driven design techniques, and is implemented using Java, Hibernate, PostgreSQL, Business Intelligence and Reporting Tools (BIRT), and Apache Tomcat.

RESULTS

The TM-CTS relational database schema contains over 70 data types, comprising over 500 data fields. The system incorporates a number of unique features that are useful in the context of ethnobotanical projects such as support for information about botanical collection, method of processing, quality tests for plants with existing pharmacopoeia standards, chemical extraction and fractionation, and historical uses of the plants. The database also accommodates data provided in multiple languages and integration with a database system built to support high throughput screening based drug discovery efforts. It is accessed via a web-based application that provides extensive, multi-format reporting capabilities.

CONCLUSIONS

This new database system was designed to support a project evaluating the bioactivity of Chinese medicinal plants. The software used to create the database is open source, freely available, and could potentially be applied to other ethnobotanically driven natural product collection and drug-discovery programs.

Developing a library of authenticated Traditional Chinese Medicinal (TCM) plants for systematic biological evaluation--rationale, methods and preliminary results from a Sino-American collaboration

While the popularity of and expenditures for herbal therapies (aka "ethnomedicines") have increased globally in recent years, their efficacy, safety, mechanisms of action, potential as novel therapeutic agents, cost-effectiveness, or lack thereof, remain poorly defined and controversial. Moreover, published clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of herbal therapies have rightfully been criticized, post hoc, for their lack of quality assurance and reproducibility of study materials, as well as a lack of demonstration of plausible mechanisms and dosing effects. In short, clinical botanical investigations have suffered from the lack of a cohesive research strategy which draws on the expertise of all relevant specialties. With this as background, US and Chinese co-investigators with expertise in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), botany, chemistry and drug discovery, have jointly established a prototype library consisting of 202 authenticated medicinal plant and fungal species that collectively represent the therapeutic content of the majority of all commonly prescribed TCM herbal prescriptions. Currently housed at Harvard University, the library consists of duplicate or triplicate kilogram quantities of each authenticated and processed species, as well as "detanninized" extracts and sub-fractions of each mother extract. Each species has been collected at 2-3 sites, each separated geographically by hundreds of miles, with precise GPS documentation, and authenticated visually and chemically prior to testing for heavy metals and/or pesticides contamination. An explicit decision process has been developed whereby samples with the least contamination were selected to undergo ethanol extraction and HPLC sub-fractionation in preparation for high throughput screening across a broad array of biological targets including cancer biology targets. As envisioned, the subfractions in this artisan collection of authenticated medicinal plants will be tested for biological activity individually and in combinations (i.e., "complex mixtures") consistent with traditional ethnomedical practice. This manuscript summarizes the rationale, methods and preliminary "proof of principle" for the establishment of this prototype, authenticated medicinal plant library. It is hoped that these methods will foster scientific discoveries with therapeutic potential and enhance efforts to systematically evaluate commonly used herbal therapies worldwide.