Disposable electrochemical flow cells for catalytic adsorptive stripping voltammetry (CAdSV) at a bismuth film electrode (BiFE)

Voltammetric Determination of Diazepam on Antimony Film Screen- Printed Electrode in Pharmaceutical Formulations

Background:

Diazepam belongs to the group of 1,4-benzodiapines. It is used for the treatment of anxiety, convulsions and as muscle relaxants. The presence of a 4,5-azomethine group enables its electrochemical detection.

Introduction:

A screen-printed electrode modified with antimony film was used for the determination of diazepam in pharmaceutical preparations

Methods:

Electrode modification was done by ex-situ deposition of antimony on a commercially available screen-printed electrode. Parameters affecting the electroanalytical response of the sensor, such as deposition potential, deposition time, and antimony concentration, were examined and optimized. The modified electrode showed enhanced electroactivity for diazepam reduction compared to the unmodified electrode. Under optimal conditions, linear sweep voltammetry was used for the determination of the analyte.

Results:

The sensor showed linear dependence in the range from 0.5 to 10 μmol/L, the correlation coefficient was 0.9992. The limit of detection was 0.33 μmol/L, corresponding limit of quantification was 1.08 μmol/L. Modification enabled determination of diazepam in the presence of oxygen.

Conclusion:

The modified electrode was used for the determination of diazepam in tablets. Results confirmed the applicability of the electrochemical sensor.

Determination of Chromium in Natural Water by Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry Using In Situ Bismuth Film Electrode

Development of adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) combined with in situ prepared bismuth film electrode (in situ BiFE) on glassy carbon disk surface using diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) as a complexing agent and NO₃⁻ as a catalyst to determine the trace amount of chromium (VI) is demonstrated. According to this method, in the preconcentration step at E_dep = −800 mV, the bismuth film is coated on the surface of glassy carbon electrodes simultaneously with the adsorption of complexes Cr(III)-DTPA. In addition to the influencing factors, the stripping voltammetry performance factors such as deposition potential, deposition time, equilibration time, cleaning potential, cleaning time, and technical parameters of differential pulse and square wave voltammetries have been investigated, and the influence of Cr(III), Co(II), Ni(II), Ca(II), Fe(III), SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, and Triton X has also been investigated. This method gained good repeatability with RSD <4% (n = 9) for the differential pulse adsorptive stripping voltammetry (DP-AdSV) and RSD < 3% (n = 7) for the square wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry (SqW-AdSV), and low limit of detection: LOD = 12.10⁻⁹ M ≈ 0.6 ppb (at a deposition potential (E_dep) of −800 mV and the deposition time (t_dep) of 50 s) and LOD = 2.10⁻⁹ M ≈ 0.1 ppb (at E_dep = −800 mV and t_dep = 160 s) for the DP-AdSV and SqW-AdSV, respectively. This method has been successfully applied to analyze chromium in natural water.

Potentiometric Stripping Analysis of Cadmium and Lead with Constant Inverse Current in the Analytical Step Using an Open Tubular Mercury-Coated Glassy Carbon Electrode

The most important experimental parameters of the flow potentiometric stripping analysis (PSA) with oxygen as an oxidant were investigated and optimised. A simple, homemade flow system consisting of glassy carbon tubes, which served as a working and auxiliary electrode, was used. By applying a rest period before the stripping step (the flow stop mode) and by imposing a constant reductive current simultaneously with the interruption of potentiostatic control, significant increase of the flow PSA sensitivity was achieved. In the determination of cadmium and lead, quantitation limits of 0.11 and 0.82 μg/L were obtained. The precision of the method was evaluated in terms of repeatability and reproducibility, with values of relative standard deviation lower than 4.0% for cadmium and 4.2% for lead. This modified technique was applied for simultaneous determination of cadmium and lead in milk, after a simple pretreatment of the samples by dilution and acidification. The method accuracy was confirmed by analysing the certified reference material of skimmed milk powder (ERM-BD151).

Complexation-Based Detection of Nickel(II) at a Graphene-Chelate Probe in the Presence of Cobalt and Zinc by Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry

The adsorptive stripping voltammetric detection of nickel and cobalt in water samples at metal film electrodes has been extensively studied. In this work, a novel, environmentally friendly, metal-free electrochemical probe was constructed for the ultra-trace determination of Ni2+ in water samples by Adsorptive Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry (AdCSV). The electrochemical platform is based on the adsorptive accumulation of Ni2+ ions directly onto a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with dimethylglyoxime (DMG) as chelating agent and a Nafion-graphene (NGr) nanocomposite to enhance electrode sensitivity. The nafion-graphene dimethylglyoxime modified glassy carbon electrode (NGr-DMG-GCE) shows superior detection capabilities as a result of the improved surface-area-to-volume ratio and enhanced electron transfer kinetics following the incorporation of single layer graphene, while limiting the toxic effects of the sensor by removal of the more common mercury, bismuth and lead films. Furthermore, for the first time the NGr-DMG-GCE, in the presence of common interfering metal ions of Co2+ and Zn2+ demonstrates good selectivity and preferential binding towards the detection of Ni2+ in water samples. Structural and morphological characterisation of the synthesised single layer graphene sheets was conducted by Raman spectrometry, HRTEM and HRSEM analysis. The instrumental parameters associated with the electrochemical response, including accumulation potential and accumulation time were investigated and optimised in addition to the influence of DMG and graphene concentrations. The NGr-DMG-GCE demonstrated well resolved, reproducible peaks, with RSD (%) below 5% and a detection limit of 1.5 µg L-1 for Ni2+ reduction at an accumulation time of 120 s., the prepared electrochemical sensor exhibited good detection and quantitation towards Ni2+ detection in tap water samples, well below 0.1 mg L-1 set by the WHO and EPA standards. This comparable to the South African drinking water guidelines of 0.15 mg L-1.

Lab-on-a-Chip Sensor with Evaporated Bismuth Film Electrode for Anodic Stripping Voltammetry of Zinc

In this work, we report on the development of a lab-on-a-chip electrochemical sensor that uses an evaporated bismuth electrode to detect zinc using square wave anodic stripping voltammetry. The microscale electrochemical cell consists of a bismuth working electrode, an integrated silver/silver chloride reference electrode, and a gold auxiliary electrode. The sensor demonstrated linear response in 0.1 M acetate buffer at pH 6 with zinc concentrations ranging from 1 μM to 30 μM and a calculated detection limit of 60 nM. The sensor was also able to successfully detect zinc in a bovine serum extract and the results were verified with independent AAS measurements. These results demonstrate the advantageous qualities of this lab-on-a-chip electrochemical sensor for clinical applications, which include a small sample volume (μL scale), reduced cost, short response time and high accuracy at low concentrations of analyte.