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Ciuffreda P, Xynomilakis O, Casati S, Ottria R. Fluorescence-Based Enzyme Activity Assay: Ascertaining the Activity and Inhibition of Endocannabinoid Hydrolytic Enzymes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7693. [PMID: 39062935 PMCID: PMC11276806 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system, known for its regulatory role in various physiological processes, relies on the activities of several hydrolytic enzymes, such as fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA), monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), and α/β-hydrolase domains 6 (ABHD6) and 12 (ABHD12), to maintain homeostasis. Accurate measurement of these enzymes' activities is crucial for understanding their function and for the development of potential therapeutic agents. Fluorometric assays, which offer high sensitivity, specificity, and real-time monitoring capabilities, have become essential tools in enzymatic studies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the principles behind these assays, the various substrates and fluorophores used, and advances in assay techniques used not only for the determination of the kinetic mechanisms of enzyme reactions but also for setting up kinetic assays for the high-throughput screening of each critical enzyme involved in endocannabinoid degradation. Through this comprehensive review, we aim to highlight the strengths and limitations of current fluorometric assays and suggest future directions for improving the measurement of enzyme activity in the endocannabinoid system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Roberta Ottria
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (P.C.); (O.X.); (S.C.)
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2
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Ekodo Voundi M, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. Synthesis, activity and metabolic stability of propan-2-one substituted tetrazolylalkanoic acids as dual inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A 2α and fatty acid amide hydrolase. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:2079-2088. [PMID: 37859716 PMCID: PMC10583809 DOI: 10.1039/d3md00224a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The serine hydrolases cytosolic phospholipase A2α (cPLA2α) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) are interesting targets for the development of new anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs. Structural modifications of a potent dual inhibitor with a propan-2-one substituted tetrazolylpropionic acid moiety led to compounds with also nanomolar activity against both enzymes but better physicochemical properties. The structure-activity relationships showed that the variations had partially divergent effects on the inhibitory activity of the compounds towards cPLA2α and FAAH reflecting differences in the binding mode to the enzymes. Furthermore, the metabolic stability of the target structures was investigated in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merlin Ekodo Voundi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
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3
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Lange T, Depmeier T, Strünker T, Lehr M. HPLC fluorescence assay for measuring the activity of NAPE-PLD and the action of inhibitors affecting this enzyme. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 229:115354. [PMID: 37003086 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
N-Acyl phosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolyzing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) is the major enzyme for the biosynthesis of the endocannabinoid anandamide. The role of NAPE-PLD in various physiological and pathophysiological conditions is currently under investigation. For example, the enzyme might be involved in the control of neuronal activity, embryonic development and pregnancy, and prostate cancer. We synthesized a novel NAPE-PLD substrate with a fluorogenic pyrene substituent at the N-acyl residue as tool compound for studying this enzyme. As shown by HPLC with fluorescence detection, in rat brain microsomes the substrate was transformed into the expected pyrene-labeled N-acylethanolamine (NAE), but minor amounts of three by-products could also be detected. In the presence of pan-serine hydrolase and secretory phospholipase A2 inhibitors, the generation of these compounds, whose identity was verified using reference substances, was abolished. Based on these results, a method for determining the activity of NAPE-PLD was developed, validated, and applied to evaluate the action of known inhibitors of this enzyme. With human sperm, it was shown that the fluorescent substrate can also be used to study NAPE metabolism in intact cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lange
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Tim Depmeier
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Timo Strünker
- Centre of Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Domagkstrasse 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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4
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Depmeier T, Lange T, Hanekamp W, Strünker T, Lehr M. HPLC fluorescence assay for measuring the activity of diacylglycerol lipases and the action of inhibitors thereof. Anal Biochem 2022; 657:114889. [PMID: 36113549 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2022.114889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
1,2-Diacylglycerol lipases (DAGLs) are the most important enzymes for the biosynthesis of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and their role in various pathophysiological conditions is currently under investigation. We synthesized a new 1,2-diacylglycerol substrate for these enzymes with a fluorogenic 4-(pyren-1-yl)butanoyl residue in sn-2 position. Using the fluorescent substrate, we measured DAGL activity in rat liver S9 fraction and brain microsomes. To this end, 2-acylglycerol release was directly determined via HPLC and fluorescence detection without further sample clean-up. The method was used to evaluate the action of several known DAGL inhibitors. These showed partly significant differences in their inhibitory effect on DAGLs in liver versus brain preparations. The method was verified by measuring the IC50 values for a subset of inhibitors by HPLC and single-quad MS detection using the deuterated natural DAGL substrate 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol-d8. DAGL activity could also be measured with the new pyrene-labeled substrate by HPLC and UV instead of fluorescence detection, if larger quantities of the samples were injected into the HPLC system. Furthermore, using intact human sperm, we show that the substrate is also converted by DAGL enzymes in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Depmeier
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Thomas Lange
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Timo Strünker
- Centre of Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Domagkstrasse 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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5
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Barth M, Rudolph S, Kampschulze J, Meyer zu Vilsendorf I, Hanekamp W, Mulac D, Langer K, Lehr M. Hexafluoroisopropyl carbamates as selective MAGL and dual MAGL/FAAH inhibitors: biochemical and physicochemical properties. ChemMedChem 2022; 17:e202100757. [PMID: 35072346 PMCID: PMC9303458 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A series of hexafluoroisopropyl carbamates with indolylalkyl‐ and azaindolylalkyl‐substituents at the carbamate nitrogen was synthesized and evaluated for inhibition of the endocannabinoid degrading enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). The synthesized derivatives with butyl to heptyl spacers between the heteroaryl and the carbamate moiety were inhibitors of both enzymes. For investigated compounds in which the alkyl chain was partially incorporated into a piperidine ring, different results were obtained. Compounds with a methylene spacer between the piperidine ring and the heteroaromatic system were found to be selective MAGL inhibitors, while an extension of the alkyl spacer to two to four atoms resulted in dual inhibition of FAAH/MAGL. The only small change in enzyme inhibitory activity with variation of the heteroaromatic system indicates that the reactive hexafluoroisopropyl carbamate group is mainly responsible for the strength of the inhibitory effect of the compounds. Selected derivatives were also tested for hydrolytic stability in aqueous solution, liver homogenate and blood plasma as well as for aqueous solubility and for permeability in a Caco‐2 cell model. Some compounds showed a slightly higher MAGL inhibitory effect than the known selective MAGL inhibitor ABX‐1431 and also partly surpassed this substance with regard to certain physicochemical and biochemical properties such as water solubility and cell permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Barth
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Stefan Rudolph
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Jan Kampschulze
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Imke Meyer zu Vilsendorf
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Dennis Mulac
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy GERMANY
| | - Klaus Langer
- University of Münster: Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy GERMANY
| | - Matthias Lehr
- University of Münster Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster GERMANY
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6
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Michels G, Lehr M. High performance liquid chromatographic assays with UV-detection for evaluation of inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2021.1925908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Michels
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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7
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Rudolph S, Dahlhaus H, Hanekamp W, Albers C, Barth M, Michels G, Friedrich D, Lehr M. Aryl N-[ω-(6-Fluoroindol-1-yl)alkyl]carbamates as Inhibitors of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase, Monoacylglycerol Lipase, and Butyrylcholinesterase: Structure-Activity Relationships and Hydrolytic Stability. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:13466-13483. [PMID: 34056494 PMCID: PMC8158844 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c01699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
A series of aryl N-[ω-(6-fluoroindol-1-yl)alkyl]carbamates with alkyl spacers of varying lengths between the indole and the carbamate group and with differently substituted aryl moieties at the carbamate oxygen were synthesized and tested for inhibition of the pharmacologically interesting serine hydrolases fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Furthermore, the chemical stability in an aqueous solution and the metabolic stability toward esterases in porcine liver homogenate and porcine blood plasma were determined. While most of the synthesized derivatives were potent inhibitors of FAAH, a considerable inhibition of MAGL and BuChE was elicited only by compounds with a high carbamate reactivity, as evidenced by a significant hydrolysis of these compounds in an aqueous solution. However, the high inhibitory potency of some compounds toward MAGL and BuChE, especially that of the ortho-carboxyphenyl derivative 37, could not be explained by chemical reactivity alone. Several of the carbamates studied possessed varying degrees of stability toward esterases from liver and blood plasma. In some cases, marked inactivation by the pseudo-esterase activity of plasma albumin was observed. Mass spectrometric studies showed that such carbamates formed covalent bonds with albumin at several sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Rudolph
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Helmut Dahlhaus
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Christian Albers
- Bruker
Daltonik GmbH, Fahrenheitstrasse
4, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Maximilian Barth
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Giulia Michels
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Denise Friedrich
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
- . Tel: +49251 83 33331. Fax: +49251 83 32144
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8
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Korff M, Imberg L, Will JM, Bückreiß N, Kalinina SA, Wenzel BM, Kastner GA, Daniliuc CG, Barth M, Ovsepyan RA, Butov KR, Humpf HU, Lehr M, Panteleev MA, Poso A, Karst U, Steinmetzer T, Bendas G, Kalinin DV. Acylated 1H-1,2,4-Triazol-5-amines Targeting Human Coagulation Factor XIIa and Thrombin: Conventional and Microscale Synthesis, Anticoagulant Properties, and Mechanism of Action. J Med Chem 2020; 63:13159-13186. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Korff
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Lukas Imberg
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Jonas M. Will
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Nico Bückreiß
- Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Svetlana A. Kalinina
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Benjamin M. Wenzel
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, Marbacher Weg 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gregor A. Kastner
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Constantin G. Daniliuc
- Institute for Organic Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Maximilian Barth
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Ruzanna A. Ovsepyan
- Laboratory of Translational Medicine, Dmitriy Rogachev National Medical Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology, and Immunology, Samory Mashela str. 1, GSP-7, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Kosygina St, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Kirill R. Butov
- Laboratory of Translational Medicine, Dmitriy Rogachev National Medical Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology, and Immunology, Samory Mashela str. 1, GSP-7, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Kosygina St, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Mikhail A. Panteleev
- Laboratory of Translational Medicine, Dmitriy Rogachev National Medical Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology, and Immunology, Samory Mashela str. 1, GSP-7, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/2 Leninskie gory, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Kosygina St, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskii per., 141700 Dolgoprudnyi, Russia
| | - Antti Poso
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Uwe Karst
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Torsten Steinmetzer
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, Marbacher Weg 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gerd Bendas
- Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Dmitrii V. Kalinin
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
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9
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Dato FM, Maaßen A, Goldfuß B, Pietsch M. Characterization of fatty acid amide hydrolase activity by a fluorescence-based assay. Anal Biochem 2018; 546:50-57. [PMID: 29408178 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2018.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is involved in many human diseases, particularly cancer, pain and inflammation as well as neurological, metabolic and cardiovascular disorders. Therefore, FAAH is an attractive target for the development of low-molecular-weight inhibitors as therapeutics, which requires robust assays that can be used for high-throughput screening (HTS) of compound libraries. Here, we report the development of a fluorometric assay based on FAAH's ability to effectively hydrolyze medium-chain fatty acid amides, introducing N-decanoyl-substituted 5-amino-2-methoxypyridine (D-MAP) as new amide substrate. D-MAP is cleaved by FAAH with an 8-fold larger specificity constant than the previously reported octanoyl-analog Oc-MAP (Vmax/Km of 1.09 and 0.134 mL min-1 mg-1, respectively), with both MAP derivatives possessing superior substrate properties and much increased aqueous solubility compared to the respective p-nitroaniline compounds D-pNA and Oc-pNA. The new assay with D-MAP as substrate is highly sensitive using a lower enzyme concentration (1 μg mL-1) than literature-reported fluorimetric FAAH assays. In addition, D-MAP was validated in comparison to the substrate Oc-MAP for the characterization of FAAH inhibitors by means of the reference compounds URB597 and TC-F2 and was shown to be highly suitable for HTS in both kinetic and endpoint assays (Z' factors of 0.81 and 0.78, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian M Dato
- Institute II of Pharmacology, Center of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Gleueler Str. 24, D-50931 Cologne, Germany; Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4, D-50939 Cologne, Germany
| | - Andreas Maaßen
- Institute II of Pharmacology, Center of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Gleueler Str. 24, D-50931 Cologne, Germany; Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4, D-50939 Cologne, Germany
| | - Bernd Goldfuß
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 4, D-50939 Cologne, Germany
| | - Markus Pietsch
- Institute II of Pharmacology, Center of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Gleueler Str. 24, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.
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10
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Kayacelebi AA, Schauerte C, Kling K, Herbers J, Beckmann B, Engeli S, Jordan J, Zoerner AA, Tsikas D. Cross-validated stable-isotope dilution GC-MS and LC-MS/MS assays for monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) activity by measuring arachidonic acid released from the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl glycerol. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1047:151-159. [PMID: 27511795 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
2-Arachidonoyl glycerol (2AG) is an endocannabinoid that activates cannabinoid (CB) receptors CB1 and CB2. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inactivates 2AG through hydrolysis to arachidonic acid (AA) and glycerol, thus modulating the activity at CB receptors. In the brain, AA released from 2AG by the action of MAGL serves as a substrate for cyclooxygenases which produce pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Here we report stable-isotope GC-MS and LC-MS/MS assays for the reliable measurement of MAGL activity. The assays utilize deuterium-labeled 2AG (d8-2AG; 10μM) as the MAGL substrate and measure deuterium-labeled AA (d8-AA; range 0-1μM) as the MAGL product. Unlabelled AA (d0-AA, 1μM) serves as the internal standard. d8-AA and d0-AA are extracted from the aqueous buffered incubation mixtures by ethyl acetate. Upon solvent evaporation the residue is reconstituted in the mobile phase prior to LC-MS/MS analysis or in anhydrous acetonitrile for GC-MS analysis. LC-MS/MS analysis is performed in the negative electrospray ionization mode by selected-reaction monitoring the mass transitions [M-H]-→[M-H - CO2]-, i.e., m/z 311→m/z 267 for d8-AA and m/z 303→m/z 259 for d0-AA. Prior to GC-MS analysis d8-AA and d0-AA were converted to their pentafluorobenzyl (PFB) esters by means of PFB-Br. GC-MS analysis is performed in the electron-capture negative-ion chemical ionization mode by selected-ion monitoring the ions [M-PFB]-, i.e., m/z 311 for d8-AA and m/z 303 for d0-AA. The GC-MS and LC-MS/MS assays were cross-validated. Linear regression analysis between the concentration (range, 0-1μM) of d8-AA measured by LC-MS/MS (y) and that by GC-MS (x) revealed a straight line (r2=0.9848) with the regression equation y=0.003+0.898x, indicating a good agreement. In dog liver, we detected MAGL activity that was inhibitable by the MAGL inhibitor JZL-184. Exogenous eicosatetraynoic acid is suitable as internal standard for the quantitative determination of d8-AA produced from d8-2AG by hepatic MAGL activity. The formation of d8-prostaglandin E2 by the consecutive catalytic action of recombinant MAGL on d8-2AG and recombinant cyclooxygenase-2 (COX) on d8-AA was demonstrated by GC-MS/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Celina Schauerte
- Centre of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Katharina Kling
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jan Herbers
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Bibiana Beckmann
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefan Engeli
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens Jordan
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexander A Zoerner
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Tsikas
- Centre of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.
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11
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Dahlhaus H, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. (Indolylalkyl)piperidine carbamates as inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). MEDCHEMCOMM 2017; 8:616-620. [PMID: 30108777 DOI: 10.1039/c6md00683c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of phenyl 4-[(indol-1-yl)alkyl]piperidine carbamates was synthesized and tested for inhibition of the endocannabinoid degrading enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and for metabolic stability in rat liver S9 fractions and porcine blood plasma. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed that variation of the length of the alkyl spacer connecting the indole and the piperidine heterocycle, introduction of substituents into the indole ring, replacement of the piperidine by a piperazine scaffold as well as opening of the piperidine ring system affect activity significantly. The metabolic stability of this compound class proved to be significantly higher than that of corresponding phenyl N-(indol-1-ylalkyl)carbamates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helmut Dahlhaus
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry , University of Münster , Corrensstrasse 48 , D-48149 Münster , Germany . ; ; Tel: +49 (251) 8333331
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry , University of Münster , Corrensstrasse 48 , D-48149 Münster , Germany . ; ; Tel: +49 (251) 8333331
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry , University of Münster , Corrensstrasse 48 , D-48149 Münster , Germany . ; ; Tel: +49 (251) 8333331
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12
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Zahov S, Garzinsky D, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. 1-Heteroarylpropan-2-ones as inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase: Studies on structure-activity relationships and metabolic stability. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 25:825-837. [PMID: 27989417 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The serine hydrolase fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) catalyzes the degradation of the endocannabinoid anandamide, which possesses analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. A new series of 1-heteroarylpropan-2-ones was synthesized and evaluated for FAAH inhibition. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed that 1H-benzotriazol-1-yl, 1H-7-azabenzotriazol-1-yl, 1H-tetrazol-1-yl and 2H-tetrazol-2-yl substituents have the highest impact on inhibitory potency. Furthermore, attempts were made to increase the limited metabolic stability of the ketone functionality of these compounds towards metabolic reduction by introduction of shielding alkyl substituents in proximity of this serine reactive group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Zahov
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - David Garzinsky
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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13
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Althaus J, Hake T, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. 1-(5-Carboxyindazol-1-yl)propan-2-ones as dual inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A 2α and fatty acid amide hydrolase: bioisosteric replacement of the carboxylic acid moiety. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2016; 31:131-140. [PMID: 27162011 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2016.1178246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Indazole-5-carboxylic acids with 3-aryloxy-2-oxopropyl residues in position 1 were previously reported to be potent dual inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A2α (cPLA2α) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). In continuation of our structure-activity studies on cPLA2α and FAAH inhibitors, a number of derivatives of these substances characterized by bioisosteric replacement of the carboxylic acid functionality by inverse amides, sulfonylamides, carbamates and ureas were prepared. The biological evaluation of the obtained compounds showed that the carboxylic acid functionality of the lead compounds is of special importance for a pronounced inhibition of cPLA2α and FAAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Althaus
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Germany
| | - Theresa Hake
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Germany
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14
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Terwege T, Hanekamp W, Garzinsky D, König S, Koch O, Lehr M. ω-Imidazolyl- and ω-Tetrazolylalkylcarbamates as Inhibitors of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase: Biological Activity and in vitro Metabolic Stability. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:429-43. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Terwege
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Münster; Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Münster; Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - David Garzinsky
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Münster; Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Simone König
- Core Unit Proteomics; Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF); University of Münster; Röntgenstrasse 21 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Oliver Koch
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology; TU Dortmund University; Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Münster; Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
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15
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Sundermann T, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. Structure-activity relationship studies on 1-heteroaryl-3-phenoxypropan-2-ones acting as inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A2α and fatty acid amide hydrolase: replacement of the activated ketone group by other serine traps. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2015; 31:653-63. [PMID: 26153239 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2015.1057721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytosolic phospholipase A2α (cPLA2α) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) are serine hydrolases. cPLA2α is involved in the generation of pro-inflammatory lipid mediators, FAAH terminates the anti-inflammatory effects of endocannabinoids. Therefore, inhibitors of these enzymes may represent new drug candidates for the treatment of inflammation. We have reported that certain 1-heteroarylpropan-2-ones are potent inhibitors of cPLA2α and FAAH. The serine reactive ketone group of these compounds, which is crucial for enzyme inhibition, is readily metabolized resulting in inactive alcohol derivatives. In order to obtain metabolically more stable inhibitors, we replaced this moiety by α-ketoheterocyle, cyanamide and nitrile serine traps. Investigations on activity and metabolic stability of these substances revealed that in all cases an increased metabolic stability was accompanied by a loss of inhibitory potency against cPLA2α and FAAH, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Sundermann
- a Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy , Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Münster , Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- a Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy , Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Münster , Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- a Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy , Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster , Münster , Germany
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16
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Terwege T, Dahlhaus H, Hanekamp W, Lehr M. ω-Heteroarylalkylcarbamates as inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). MEDCHEMCOMM 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4md00181h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of heteroaryl-substituted alkylcarbamates have been synthesized and evaluated for their inhibitory potency against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Terwege
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry
- University of Münster
- Corrensstrasse 48
- D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Helmut Dahlhaus
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry
- University of Münster
- Corrensstrasse 48
- D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Walburga Hanekamp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry
- University of Münster
- Corrensstrasse 48
- D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry
- University of Münster
- Corrensstrasse 48
- D-48149 Münster, Germany
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17
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(4-Phenoxyphenyl)tetrazolecarboxamides and related compounds as dual inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). Eur J Med Chem 2013; 63:64-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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18
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Rempel V, Fuchs A, Hinz S, Karcz T, Lehr M, Koetter U, Müller CE. Magnolia Extract, Magnolol, and Metabolites: Activation of Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors and Blockade of the Related GPR55. ACS Med Chem Lett 2013; 4:41-5. [PMID: 24900561 DOI: 10.1021/ml300235q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The bark of Magnolia officinalis is used in Asian traditional medicine for the treatment of anxiety, sleeping disorders, and allergic diseases. We found that the extract and its main bioactive constituents, magnolol and honokiol, can activate cannabinoid (CB) receptors. In cAMP accumulation studies, magnolol behaved as a partial agonist (EC50 = 3.28 μM) with selectivity for the CB2 subtype, while honokiol was less potent showing full agonistic activity at CB1 and antagonistic properties at CB2. We subsequently synthesized the major metabolites of magnolol and found that tetrahydromagnolol (7) was 19-fold more potent than magnolol (EC50 CB2 = 0.170 μM) exhibiting high selectivity versus CB1. Additionally, 7 behaved as an antagonist at GPR55, a CB-related orphan receptor (K B = 13.3 μM, β-arrestin translocation assay). Magnolol and its metabolites may contribute to the biological activities of Magnolia extract via the observed mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the biphenylic compound magnolol provides a simple novel lead structure for the development of agonists for CB receptors and antagonists for the related GPR55.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Rempel
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical
Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexander Fuchs
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical
Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Sonja Hinz
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical
Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Tadeusz Karcz
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical
Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58-62,
D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Uwe Koetter
- CH-8592 Uttwil, Oberdorfstrasse 14, Switzerland
| | - Christa E. Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical
Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
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Roebrock K, Wolf M, Bovens S, Lehr M, Sunderkötter C. Inhibition of benzalkonium chloride-induced skin inflammation in mice by an indol-1-ylpropan-2-one inhibitor of cytosolic phospholipase A2α. Br J Dermatol 2011; 166:306-16. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10637.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Rusch M, Zahov S, Vetter IR, Lehr M, Hedberg C. Design, synthesis and evaluation of polar head group containing 2-keto-oxazole inhibitors of FAAH. Bioorg Med Chem 2011; 20:1100-12. [PMID: 22196515 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
2-α-Keto oxazoles containing polar head groups in their C5-side chains were designed as fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors. Variation in the spacer length resulted in submicromolar α-keto-oxazole FAAH inhibitor (IC(50)=436 nM) presenting electrostatic stabilizing interactions between its polar head group contained in the C5-side chain and the hydrophilic pocket of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Rusch
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn Strasse 11, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany
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21
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Zahov S, Drews A, Hess M, Schulze Elfringhoff A, Lehr M. 1‐(3‐Biaryloxy‐2‐oxopropyl)indole‐5‐carboxylic Acids and Related Compounds as Dual Inhibitors of Human Cytosolic Phospholipase A
2
α and Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase. ChemMedChem 2011; 6:544-9. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201000473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2010] [Revised: 11/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Zahov
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58‐62, 48149 Münster (Germany), Fax: (+49) 251‐83‐32144
| | - Andreas Drews
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58‐62, 48149 Münster (Germany), Fax: (+49) 251‐83‐32144
| | - Mark Hess
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58‐62, 48149 Münster (Germany), Fax: (+49) 251‐83‐32144
| | - Alwine Schulze Elfringhoff
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58‐62, 48149 Münster (Germany), Fax: (+49) 251‐83‐32144
| | - Matthias Lehr
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Münster, Hittorfstrasse 58‐62, 48149 Münster (Germany), Fax: (+49) 251‐83‐32144
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22
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Holtfrerich A, Makharadze T, Lehr M. High-performance liquid chromatography assay with fluorescence detection for the evaluation of inhibitors against human recombinant monoacylglycerol lipase. Anal Biochem 2010; 399:218-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2009] [Revised: 12/08/2009] [Accepted: 12/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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23
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Chattipakorn N, Settakorn J, Petsophonsakul P, Suwannahoi P, Mahakranukrauh P, Srichairatanakool S, Chattipakorn SC. Cardiac mortality is associated with low levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the heart of cadavers with a history of coronary heart disease. Nutr Res 2010; 29:696-704. [PMID: 19917448 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2009.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 09/09/2009] [Accepted: 09/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The benefits of omega-3 (ie, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) and omega-6 (ie, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid [AA]) fatty acids on reducing cardiac mortality are still debated. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that high levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in heart tissues are associated with low cardiac mortality in Thai cadavers. One hundred fresh cadavers were examined in this study. The cause of death, history of coronary heart disease (CHD), and fish consumption habits were obtained from death certificates, cadaver medical record profiles, and a questionnaire to a person who lived with the subject before death. In each cadaver, biopsies of cardiac tissues were taken from the interventricular septum for measurement of fatty acid. Of the 100 cadavers (average age, 69 +/- 13 years), 60 were men. The frequency of fish consumption was directly associated with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in heart tissues (P < .01). History of CHD and cause of death (cardiac vs noncardiac) were not significantly associated with levels of omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. However, in cadavers with a history of CHD, high levels of omega-3 and omega-6, particularly DHA and AA, were associated with low cardiac mortality (P < .05). Fish consumption is associated with levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in heart tissues. Although omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are not associated with cardiac mortality in the overall studied population, their low levels (especially DHA and AA) in heart tissues are associated with high cardiac mortality in cadavers with a history of CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nipon Chattipakorn
- Department of Physiology, Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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1-Indol-1-yl-propan-2-ones and related heterocyclic compounds as dual inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A2α and fatty acid amide hydrolase. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:945-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2009] [Revised: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 11/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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