Microwave-assisted extraction and determination of enrofloxacin and danofloxacin photo-transformation products in soil

Determination of antimicrobial agents and their transformation products in an agricultural water-soil system modified with manure

Manure fertilization is the primary source of veterinary antimicrobials in the water-soil system. The research gap is the fate of antimicrobials after their release into the environment. This study aimed to provide a detailed and multi-faceted examination of fertilized cultivated fields using two types of manure (poultry and bovine) enriched with selected antimicrobials. The research focused on assessing the mobility and stability of antimicrobials in the water-soil system. Additionally, transformation products of antimicrobials in the environment were identified. The extraction (solid-phase extraction and/or solid-liquid extraction) and LC-MS/MS analysis procedures were developed to determine 14 antimicrobials in the soil and pore water samples. Ten out of fourteen antimicrobials were detected in manure-amended soil and pore water samples. The highest concentration in the soil was 109.1 ng g^-1 (doxycycline), while in pore water, it was 186.6 ng L^-1 (ciprofloxacin). Sixteen transformation products of antimicrobials were identified in the soil and soil-related pore water. The same transformation products were detected in both soil and soil pore water extracts, with significantly higher signal intensities observed in soil extracts than in water. Transformation products were formed in oxidation, carbonylation, and ring-opening reactions.

Suspect screening of antimicrobial agents transformation products in environmental samples development of LC-QTrap method running in pseudo MRM transitions

The aim of the work was to develop a new HPLC-MS/MS method that allows for the simultaneous detection of antimicrobials agents (targeted analysis) and their transformation products (non-targeted analysis), which enabled the elucidation of their transformation pathways in the environment. Targeted analysis was performed for 16 selected antimicrobials agents (AMs) in wastewater collected at different stages of the treatment process and river water from sections before and after wastewater discharge. The samples were collected in the Łyna sewage treatment plant (Olsztyn, Poland) in three measuring periods at different seasons. Analytes were selected from tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, β-lactams, macrolides, glycopeptides, lincosamides and synthetic antibiotics. As a part of the targeted analysis, 13 AMs were detected in wastewater samples, and 7 of them in river water samples. However, their presence and concentrations were closely related to the type of the sample and the season in which the sample was taken. The highest concentrations of AMs were detected in samples collected in September (max. 1643.7 ng L^-1 TRI), while the lowest AMs concentrations were found in samples collected in June (max. 136.1 ng L^-1 CLR). The total content of AMs in untreated wastewater was in the range of 1.42-1644 ng L^-1, while in the river water was for upstream 1.22-48.73 ng L^-1 and for downstream 2.24-149 ng L^-1. In the non-target analysis, 33 degradation products of the selected AMs were identified, and the transformation pathways of their degradation were speculated. In the course of the research, it was found that as a result of the processes taking place in wastewater treatment plant, the parent substances are transformed into a number of stable transformation products. Transformation products resulted from hydroxylation, ring opening, oxidation, methylation or demethylation, carboxylation, or cleavage of the CN bond of the parent AMs.

Occurrence, sources and risk assessment of fluoroquinolones in dumpsite soil and sewage sludge from Chennai, India

Soil and sludge are major reservoirs of organic compounds such as fluoroquinolones (FQs) which are broad-spectrum antibacterial agents. Hence, we monitored three major FQs, namely, ciprofloxacin (CIP), norfloxacin (NOR), and ofloxacin (OFL), in surface soil from two major dumpsites and dry and wet sludge from sewage treatment plants in Chennai city. The mean concentration of FQs in soil and sludge samples were 20 μg/g and 26 μg/g, respectively. Nearly 50% of the total FQs in dumpsite soil was contributed by CIP followed by NOR (32%) and OFL (13%). Similarly, CIP was the major contributor in sludge samples followed by NOR and OFL. The concentration of FQs was two folds higher in wet sludge than dry sludge most likely indicating that water solubility of these compounds might play an important role for elevated level of FQs in wet sludge. Solid waste from pharmaceutical industries, households, and sludge from wastewater treatment plants were expected to be the major source of FQs in dumpsite soil. Predicted risk assessment using soil to water migration concentrations via surface run off indicated high risk to aquatic organisms. However, risk quotient (RQ) was found less to earthworm in most of the soil samples. The findings from this study might help in future policies on disposal of household antibiotics in the solid waste stream.

Preparation of Ce4+-doped BaZrO3 by hydrothermal method and application in dual-frequent sonocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin in aqueous solution

In this paper, the dual-frequent sonocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin (NOR), an antibiotic, caused by Ce⁴⁺-doped BaZrO₃ is studied. The used Ce⁴⁺-doped BaZrO₃ as a novel sonocatalyst with highly efficient and stable sonocatalytic activity is prepared via hydrothermal method. The prepared sample is characterized by X-ray diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) and Fourier transform infrared spectra (FT-IR) in order to investigate the structure, morphology and chemical composition. The dual-frequent sonocatalytic activity of prepared Ce⁴⁺-doped BaZrO₃ powder is evaluated through sonocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin (NOR) as a model organic pollutant. Some influencing factors such as single/dual-frequent ultrasonic frequent, cerium and zirconium molar proportions, ultrasonic irradiation time and used times are studied in detail by using UV-vis spectra. The generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the dual-frequent sonocatalytic degradation process of norfloxacin (NOR) are confirmed by using two different trapping agents. The holes (h⁺) and hydroxyl radicals (OH) are identified and the holes plays a major role during the oxidation process. Finally, the possible mechanism for the dual-frequent sonocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin (NOR) caused by Ce⁴⁺-doped BaZrO₃ is proposed. The experimental results show that the Ce⁴⁺-doped BaZrO₃ displays a good sonocatalytic activity under dual-frequent ultrasonic irradiation. Under optimal conditions, the most of norfloxacin (NOR) can be removed under dual-frequent ultrasonic irradiation for 150 min.

Highly-sensitive detection of eight typical fluoroquinolone antibiotics by capillary electrophoresis-mass spectroscopy coupled with immunoaffinity extraction

An off-line procedure, immunoaffinity extraction (IAE), followed by capillary electrophoresis-mass spectroscopy (CE-MS) has been developed for the simultaneous determination of eight typical FQs in environmental water samples.

Sunlight-induced degradation of fluoroquinolones in wastewater effluent: Photoproducts identification and toxicity

The photodegradation of Ciprofloxacin (CIP), Enrofloxacin (ENR), Danofloxacin (DAN), Marbofloxacin (MAR) and Levofloxacin (LEV), five widely used fluoroquinolones (FQs), was studied in urban WWTP secondary effluent, under solar light. The degradation profiles and the kinetic constants were determined at the micrograms per litre levels (20-50 μg L(-1)). The photo-generated products were identified by high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The toxicity of the photoproducts was assessed by Vibrio fischeri light emission inhibition assay performed on irradiated and not-irradiated FQs solutions, at environmentally significant concentrations. Attention was focused on the evaluation of the photoproducts contribution to the overall biotoxic effect of these emerging pollutants. Data from chronic exposure experiments (24-48 h) were primarily considered. Results confirmed the major usefulness of chronic toxicity data with respect to the acute assay ones and proved the not negligible biotoxicity of the FQs photodegradation products.

Graphene-derivatized silica as an efficient solid-phase extraction sorbent for pre-concentration of fluoroquinolones from water followed by liquid-chromatography fluorescence detection

This work presents a novel analytical method based on graphene for the determination of five widely used fluoroquinolones (FQs) in aqueous matrices. The procedure entails solid-phase extraction (SPE) on graphene-derivatized silica (200mg), followed by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Monolayer graphene oxide (GO) flakes were covalently bonded onto aminopropyl silica microparticles, and then treated with aqueous hydrazine to obtain the reduced GO (RGO). The final material (RGO-silica) was characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and BET analysis, and for the first time evaluated as mixed-mode sorbent for the SPE of FQs from natural waters. Accuracy was studied on tap/raw river water in the concentration range 5-10,000ngL(-1), obtaining mean absolute recoveries from 72 to 118%. The inter-day precision was good, showing relative standard deviations (RSDs) in the range 5-15%. Sample volumes up to 1L provided enrichment factors up to 1000, achieving accurate quantification of concentrations as low as 5ngL(-1). The analytes were simultaneously and quantitatively eluted from the RGO-silica cartridge in a single fraction by using acetonitrile combined with aqueous tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide. The batch-to-batch reproducibility was verified on three independently prepared RGO-silica samples. RGO-silica was advantageous in terms of adsorption capacity and reusability with respect to commercial sorbents; the cartridge proved to be reusable for at least 10 consecutive extractions, with no significant loss of efficiency (recovery >70%). The analytical procedure was applied to the determination of FQs in actual environmental waters.

Environmental photochemistry of fluoroquinolones in soil and in aqueous soil suspensions under solar light

The photodegradation fate of widely used fluoroquinolone (FQ) drugs has been studied both at the water-soil interface and in soil at actual concentrations (500 ng g(-1)) under natural solar light. Both human and veterinary drugs have been examined, namely ciprofloxacin, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin, marbofloxacin and moxifloxacin. After spiking and irradiation, samples were submitted to microwave-assisted extraction and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD). FQs degradation was faster in aqueous soil suspension than in neat soil (but lower than in "clean" water). A number of byproducts were identified by HPLC electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry after a post-extraction cleanup based on a molecularly imprinted polymer phase, for a more accurate detection. The distribution in the suspension was intermediate between those observed in soils and in aqueous solutions.