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Willems R, You SJ, Vollmer F, Hattingen E, Weidauer S. Toxic Leukoencephalopathy due to Suspected Levamisole-adulterated Cocaine. Clin Neuroradiol 2024; 34:503-506. [PMID: 37962601 PMCID: PMC11130053 DOI: 10.1007/s00062-023-01358-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Willems
- Institute of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Se-Jong You
- Institute of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Friederike Vollmer
- Clinic of Neurology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Elke Hattingen
- Institute of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Stefan Weidauer
- Institute of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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2
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Paz-Ramos MI, Violante-Soria V, Browne T, Cruz SL. Effects of fentanyl and the adulterant levamisole on the rewarding and locomotor effects of methamphetamine in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2024; 256:111098. [PMID: 38266573 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.111098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People who use psychostimulant substances can be exposed to unknown adulterants, such as the synthetic opioid fentanyl (FEN) and the anthelmintic cholinergic agent levamisole (LEV). This work explores the rewarding and locomotor effects of methamphetamine (METH) in combination with FEN or LEV. METHODS We used adult male Wistar rats in the conditioned-place preference (CPP) paradigm (conditioning, extinction, and reinstatement phases) and in the open field test to study effective doses of METH, FEN, or LEV, or ineffective doses of METH+FEN or METH+LEV in combination. RESULTS METH and LEV, at 1mg/kg METH each, and 30µg/kg FEN produced CPP. Extinction to METH- or LEV-induced CPP occurred after eight saline injections, but it took 8-26 sessions to extinguish FEN-induced CPP. A challenge dose of 0.5mg/kg METH reinstated CPP. The same occurred with 15µg/kg FEN but not with 0.5 or 1mg/kg LEV. Training animals with ineffective doses of METH (0.01mg/kg) combined with either FEN (0.3µg/kg) or LEV (0.01mg/kg) produced CPP. Sub-effective doses of METH or FEN alone did not induce reinstatement after extinction. However, animals challenged with LEV, METH+FEN, or METH+LEV mixtures did it. Combining FEN (3µg/kg) with 0.1mg/kg METH increased locomotor activity. CONCLUSION Ineffective FEN and LEV doses mixed with METH produce effects larger than would be expected based on the effects of either drug alone. This outcome suggests a supra-additive interaction, which could increase the risk of developing a METH use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thom Browne
- Colombo Plan Secretariat, Drug Advisory Program, Colombo, Sri Lanka
| | - Silvia L Cruz
- Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Mexico City, Mexico.
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3
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Research on the Removal of Levamisole Residues in Bovine, Ovine, Caprine, Porcine and Poultry Tissues. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9090261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we set the waiting time for the elimination of levamisole residues at a safe level from tissues (muscles and organs) from animals treated with levamisole 10%—oral solution. We studied the depletion of levamisole residues by high performance liquid chromatography with a mass spectrometer (limit of quantification 2 μg/kg) in the tissues of bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine and poultry (chickens and pigeons) after administration of levamisole (10 mg levamisole/kg body weight for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and 20 mg levamisole/kg body weight for birds). We found that in cattle, sheep and goats at 7 days after treatment, the residues of levamisole in the liver and at 14 days and in the other tissues were below the established limit value. In pigs at 7 days, residues from all tissues were below the set limit value. Residue depletion in chickens treated with levamisole was rapid, such that 3 days after treatment, the residues in all tissues were below the set limit. Residue depletion was slower in turkeys than in chickens.
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4
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Ansar SM, Jiang W, Mudalige T. Analysis of verteporfin liposomal formulations for phospholipids and phospholipid degradation products by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). J Pharm Biomed Anal 2022; 208:114473. [PMID: 34814079 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Lipid composition and lipid degradation are critical to the stability of liposomal formulations which can impact the safety and efficacy of the drug. Herein we developed and validated an ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) method for determining phospholipid composition and phospholipid degradation products in a verteporfin liposomal formulation (Visudyne). The high mass accuracy (<5 ppm) of the QTOF method coupled with database searching (SimLipid) and comparison with known standards accurately identified and quantified the phospholipid compositions and lipid degradation products. The analysis of Visudyne indicated that more than 50% (w/w) of the total phospholipids are composed of phosphatidylcholine (PC) 14:0-14:0 and major phosphatidylglycerol (PG) species found are PG 16:0-18:2, PG 16:0-18:1, PG 18:0-18:2, and PG 18:0-18:1. The LC-MS method developed is capable of separating structural isomers such as PG 18:1-18:1 versus PG 18:0-18:2 and the separation of PG stereoisomers, such as PG 18:1-18:1 cis and PG 18:1-18:1 trans. The major lipid degradation products in Visudyne includes lysophosphatidylcholine and a few saturated and unsaturated lysophosphatidylglycerols, and free fatty acids (FFA). Each degradation product is less than 1% of the total phospholipids (w/w). In addition, the lipid profiles of naturally sourced egg PG from six different vendors were compared with the PG composition in Visudyne. Differences in lipid composition in egg PGs from different vendors were observed and the PG composition in Visudyne is matched with the lipid profile of the some of the egg PGs from different vendors. Drug developers can utilize this method to assess raw materials and lipid-based drug product quality and regulatory scientists can monitor the quality of the drug available in the market using this validated method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyam M Ansar
- Arkansas Laboratory, Office of Regulatory Science, Office of Regulatory Affairs, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Wenlei Jiang
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA.
| | - Thilak Mudalige
- Arkansas Laboratory, Office of Regulatory Science, Office of Regulatory Affairs, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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5
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White CM, Browne T, Nafziger AN. Inherent Dangers of Using Non-US Food and Drug Administration-Approved Substances of Abuse. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S129-S141. [PMID: 34396559 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Use of US Food and Drug Administration-approved substances of abuse has innate risks due to pharmacologic and pharmacokinetic properties of the medications, but the risk when using nonapproved drug products is much greater. Unbeknownst to the user, the dose of active ingredients in substances of abuse can vary substantially between different products because of manufacturing practices or improper storage. Even naturally occurring substances of abuse can have extensive dosage variability because of effects of the growing season and conditions, or differences in harvesting, storage, or manufacture of the finished products. Many illicit substances are adulterated, to make up for intentional underdosing or to enhance the effect of the intended active ingredient. These adulterants can be dangerous and produce direct cardiovascular, neurologic, hematologic, or dermatologic reactions or obscure adverse effects. Finally, an illicit substance can be contaminated or substituted for another one during its manufacture, leading to differences in adverse events, adverse event severity, or the drug interaction profile. Substances can be contaminated with microbes that induce infections or heavy metals that can damage organs or cause cancer. This milieu of undisclosed substances can also induce drug interactions. For reasons that are discussed, individuals who use substances of abuse are at increased risk of morbidity or mortality if they develop coronavirus disease 2019. Health professionals who treat patients with acute, urgent events associated with substances of abuse, or those treating the chronic manifestations of addiction, need to appreciate the complex and variable composition of substances of abuse and their potential health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Michael White
- Pharmacy Practice, University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,HOPES Research Group, UConn and Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut, USA
| | - Thom Browne
- Rubicon Global Enterprises & Colombo Plan Secretariat, Huachuca City, Arizona, USA
| | - Anne N Nafziger
- Bertino Consulting, Schenectady, New York, USA.,Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, USA
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6
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Midthun KM, Nelson LS, Logan BK. Levamisole-a Toxic Adulterant in Illicit Drug Preparations: a Review. Ther Drug Monit 2021; 43:221-228. [PMID: 33298746 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Discovered in the 1960s, the common anthelminthic levamisole has seen widespread use in veterinary applications. Its use rapidly expanded thereafter to include human medical treatments for a variety of acute and chronic disorders. Because of reports of severe adverse effects, the US Food and Drug Administration withdrew levamisole's approval for human use in 2000; however, medical options outside the United States and illicit options worldwide allow continued accessibility to levamisole. The compound is rapidly metabolized in the body, with at least 2 known active metabolites. Levamisole has a broad range of immunomodulatory effects, including both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on immune responses. It is generally well tolerated at therapeutic concentrations, although a variety of autoimmune-related adverse effects have been reported, including agranulocytosis, leukopenia, purpura, and visible necrotized skin tissue. Individuals with levamisole-compromised immune systems are more susceptible to infections, including COVID-19. Since the early 2000's, levamisole has been frequently used as an adulterating agent in illicit street drugs, especially cocaine, fentanyl, and heroin. Although its prevalence has varied over time and geographically, levamisole has been detected in up to 79% of the street supply of cocaine at levels up to 74% by weight. Its presence in illicit drug markets also raises concern over the potential for exposure of children and neonates, although this is supported by only limited anecdotal evidence. Levamisole is not currently included in routine drug testing panels, although a variety of confirmatory testing techniques exist across a range of antemortem and postmortem specimen options. Because of its varying presence in illicit drug markets, both the medical and forensic communities need to be aware of levamisole and its potential impact on toxicological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lewis S Nelson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey; and
| | - Barry K Logan
- NMS Labs, Horsham, Pennsylvania
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE) at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania
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7
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Lelièvre B, Suply B, Schmitt F, Marcorelles P, Drevin G, Maillart CR. A fatal case after an intravenous injection of levamisole. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2020; 17:130-135. [PMID: 33180273 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-020-00336-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Levamisole is a drug originally prescribed as an antihelmintic. Because of the occurrence of severe cases of agranulocytosis and leukoencephalitis it was removed from the French market in 1998 for human use, while it remains available for veterinary use. Nowadays in France its only use in humans is regulated by authorization for temporary use for its immunomodulatory properties in the treatment of nephritic syndrome.A 52-year-old man was found dead at his farm. Injection points were observed on his arm and a syringe containing a dark orange-brown liquid was found near the body. At his home, the discovery of a letter highlighted suicidal intent. Analysis of the aforementioned liquid, peripheral blood and urine confirmed the unique presence of levamisole. The femoral blood concentration of levamisole was of 25 mg/L whereas the femoral blood concentrations reported in cases of fatalities after cocaine use do not exceed 0.0056 mg/L. In humans, levamisole can be detected in biological samples after cocaine use as this drug is also an adulterant and one of its metabolites (aminorex) seems to have amphetamine-like properties. In this case, the man consumed levamisole from time to time for its stimulant and strengthening effects.Cases of fatal poisoning using levamisole are very rare and poorly documented, which makes the interpretation of postmortem blood levamisole concentration difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bénédicte Lelièvre
- Pharmacology-Toxicology Laboratory, CHU Angers, 49933, Angers, France. .,Groupe d'Etude Des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène, UNIV Angers, UNIV Brest, Institut de Biologie en Santé-IRIS, (EA 3142) SFR ICAT 4208 , Angers, France.
| | - Benoit Suply
- Forensic Unit of CHU Brest, Antenne GHBS Lorient, Lorient, France
| | | | | | - Guillaume Drevin
- Pharmacology-Toxicology Laboratory, CHU Angers, 49933, Angers, France
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8
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Wang K, Wang X, Xu Z, Yang S. Simultaneous determination of multi-class antibiotics and steroid hormones drugs in livestock and poultry faeces using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1467-1480. [PMID: 32618496 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1776900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A method for simultaneous determination of multi-class antibiotics and steroid hormone analysis in faeces of livestock and poultry was developed using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF MS). An in-house database was built for 156 detected drugs using Personal Compound Database Library software (PCDL) including compound name, monoisotopic mass, chemical formula, RT, chemical structure and three CID MS/MS spectra. The linearity result showed that all the drugs exhibited good linearity with determination coefficients (R2) higher than 0.99. The drug recoveries and their RSDs for all three faeces samples (pig, cattle and chicken) were tested and 81, 96 and 92 drugs were chosen for analysis in pig, cattle and chicken faeces, respectively. Further validation showed that 73 veterinary drugs in all three kinds of faeces samples can be quantified in one analytical run. This work shows that qualitative and quantitative analysis using LC-QTOF MS represents a simple, sensitive, low-cost and high-throughput methodology in routine laboratory analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kewen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.,College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhenzhen Xu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Shuming Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China
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9
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Gameiro R, Costa S, Barroso M, Franco J, Fonseca S. Toxicological analysis of cocaine adulterants in blood samples. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 299:95-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Rickli A, Kolaczynska K, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Pharmacological characterization of the aminorex analogs 4-MAR, 4,4′-DMAR, and 3,4-DMAR. Neurotoxicology 2019; 72:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Handley SA, Belsey SL, Couchman L, Flanagan RJ. Plasma and Urine Levamisole in Clinical Samples Containing Benzoylecgonine: Absence of Aminorex. J Anal Toxicol 2019; 43:299-306. [PMID: 30590551 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aminorex has been reported as a metabolite of levamisole in man, but data on the aminorex concentrations in clinical samples are scant. We thus measured levamisole, aminorex and benzoylecgonine in urine, and levamisole and aminorex in plasma using achiral liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Centrifuged urine (50 μL) was diluted with LC eluent containing internal standard (benzoylecgonine-D3, 25 μg/L) (450 μL). For plasma, sample (200 μL) and Tris solution (2 mol/L, pH 10.6, 100 μL) were added to a 60.5 × 7.5 mm i.d. glass test tube. Internal standard solution (ketamine-D4, 200 μg/L) (10 μL) was added and the tube contents vortex-mixed (5 s). Butyl acetate:butanol (9 + 1, v/v; 200 μL) was added and after vortex-mixing (30 s) and centrifugation (13,680 × g, 4 min), the extract was evaporated to dryness and reconstituted in 10 mmol/L aqueous ammonium formate containing 0.1% (v/v) formic acid (150 μL). Prepared samples and extracts (100 μL) were analyzed using an AccucoreTM Phenyl-Hexyl column (2.6 mm a.p.s., 100 × 2.1 mm i.d.) maintained at 40°C. MS detection was in positive mode using heated electrospray ionization (ThermoFisher Q-ExactiveTM). Intra- and inter-assay accuracy and precision were ±20%, and ≤11%, respectively, for all analytes in both matrices. Lower limits of quantitation were 0.1 and 1 μg/L (all analytes) in plasma and urine, respectively. Of 100 consecutive urine samples submitted for drugs of abuse screening containing benzoylecgonine, levamisole was detected in 72 (median 565, range 4-72,970 μg/L). Levamisole was also measured in eight plasma samples (median 10.6, range 0.9-64.1 μg/L). A number of metabolites of levamisole (4-hydroxylevamisole, levamisole sulfoxide, levamisole glucuronide, and hydroxylevamisole glucuronide) were tentatively identified in urine. Neither aminorex, nor any of its reported metabolites were detected in any sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Handley
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - S L Belsey
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - L Couchman
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - R J Flanagan
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Vonmoos M, Hirsiger S, Preller KH, Hulka LM, Allemann D, Herdener M, Baumgartner MR, Quednow BB. Cognitive and neuroanatomical impairments associated with chronic exposure to levamisole-contaminated cocaine. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:235. [PMID: 30368522 PMCID: PMC6204136 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-018-0279-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, levamisole is the most common cocaine adulterant worldwide and it is known to induce a variety of adverse side effects. Animal studies and human case reports suggest potential neurotoxicity of the compound but neither neuroanatomical nor cognitive effects of levamisole have been systematically investigated in cocaine users so far. We examined cognitive performance and cortical structural differences between chronic cocaine users with low and high recent exposure to levamisole objectively determined by quantitative toxicological hair analyses. In Study 1, we compared 26 chronic cocaine users with low levamisole exposure (lowLevCU), 49 matched cocaine users with high levamisole exposure (highLevCU), and 78 matched stimulant-naive controls regarding cognitive functioning employing a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery. In Study 2, we investigated cortical thickness by use of T1-weighted MRI in a subgroup of 12 lowLevCU, 17 highLevCU, and 38 stimulant-naive controls. In Study 1, both cocaine user groups showed significant impairments in the cognitive domains of attention and working memory as well as in the global cognitive index. However, highLevCU showed significantly worse executive functions compared to lowLevCU although both groups did not differ in severity of cocaine consumption and other clinical dimensions. Study 2 revealed that highLevCU, displayed reduced cortical thickness specifically in the middle frontal gyrus compared to both controls and lowLevCU. Our results suggest that levamisole exposure during the last months in cocaine users is associated with increased executive function impairments and pronounced thinning of the lateral prefrontal cortex. Consequently, prevention and drug policy-making should aim to reduce levamisole contamination of street cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Vonmoos
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Sarah Hirsiger
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin H. Preller
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lea M. Hulka
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ,0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Center for Addictive Disorders, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Allemann
- Health & Social Welfare Department State of Berne, Office of the Cantonal Pharmacist, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marcus Herdener
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Center for Addictive Disorders, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R. Baumgartner
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Center of Forensic Hairanalytics, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B. Quednow
- 0000 0004 1937 0650grid.7400.3Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ,0000 0001 2156 2780grid.5801.cNeuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Aminorex (5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) and 4-methylaminorex (4-methyl-5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) are psychostimulants that have long been listed in Schedules IV and I of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. However, a range of psychoactive analogues exist that are not internationally controlled and therefore often classified as new psychoactive substances (NPS). Aminorex analogues encompass failed pharmaceuticals that reemerged as drugs of abuse, and newly synthesized substances that were solely designed for recreational use by clandestine chemists. NPS, sometimes also referred to as "designer drugs" in alignment with a phenomenon arising in the early 1980s, serve as alternatives to controlled drugs. Aminorex and its derivatives interact with monoaminergic neurotransmission by interfering with the function of monoamine transporters. Hence, these compounds share pharmacological and neurochemical similarities with amphetamines and cocaine. The consumption of aminorex, 4-methylaminorex and 4,4'-dimethylaminorex (4-methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) has been associated with adverse events including death, bestowing an inglorious fame on aminorex-derived drugs. In this Review, a historical background is presented, as well as an account of the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of aminorex and various analogues. Light is shed on their misuse as drug adulterants of well-established drugs on the market. This Review not only provides a detailed overview of an abused substance-class, but also emphasizes the darkest aspect of the NPS market, i.e., deleterious side effects that arise from the ingestion of certain NPS, as knowledge of the pharmacology, the potency, or the identity of the active ingredients remains obscure to NPS users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Maier
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Felix P. Mayer
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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14
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Kolanović BS, Bilandžić N, Varenina I, Luburić ĐB, Varga I, Cvetnić L, Benić M, Cvetnić Ž, Lugomer MD, Pavliček D, Šušković J, Kos B. Estimation of the Withdrawal Time of Levamisole in Eggs after Oral Administration to Laying Hens. J Food Prot 2018; 81:1627-1634. [PMID: 30198755 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to evaluate withdrawal time of levamisole in eggs after oral administration in laying hens at different doses. Sampling of eggs was conducted for 37 days after the end of treatment, and levamisole concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry validated according to the Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. Estimated validation parameters were as follows: decision limit, 0.54 μg/kg; detection capability, 0.56 μg/kg; limit of detection, 0.04 μg/kg; limit of quantification, 0.15 μg/kg; accuracy (recovery), between 92.9 and 102.3%; precision (relative standard deviation), ≤4.62%; and within-laboratory precision (relative standard deviation), ≤5.19%. Levamisole residue levels were significantly higher in egg yolks than in egg whites. The highest levels of levamisole were detected on day 2 posttreatment in groups receiving 50 mg/kg of body weight (556.2 μg/kg in egg yolks and 166.5 μg/kg in egg whites). Significant elimination occurred within 5 days after the cessation of treatment in all groups, with an elimination half-life of 1.3 days. Levamisole was still detectable on day 30 after the end of treatment in egg whites (0.06 μg/kg) and on day 37 in egg yolks (0.06 μg/kg). The longest withdrawal time for levamisole in eggs (14.9 days) was determined in a group treated with 25 mg of levamisole per kg of body weight for two consecutive days. According to the results, oral treatment of laying hens with levamisole may result in noncompliant egg samples even 14 days after treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nina Bilandžić
- 1 Laboratory for Residue Control (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4073-2498 [B.S.K.])
| | - Ivana Varenina
- 1 Laboratory for Residue Control (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4073-2498 [B.S.K.])
| | - Đurđica Božić Luburić
- 1 Laboratory for Residue Control (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4073-2498 [B.S.K.])
| | - Ines Varga
- 1 Laboratory for Residue Control (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4073-2498 [B.S.K.])
| | - Luka Cvetnić
- 2 Laboratory for Mastitis and Raw Milk Quality, and
| | | | - Željko Cvetnić
- 3 Laboratory for Bacterial Zoonoses and Molecular Diagnostics of Bacterial Diseases, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marija Denžić Lugomer
- 4 Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry and Residues, Croatian Veterinary Institute Križevci, 48260 Križevci, Croatia; and
| | - Damir Pavliček
- 4 Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry and Residues, Croatian Veterinary Institute Križevci, 48260 Križevci, Croatia; and
| | - Jagoda Šušković
- 5 Laboratory of Antibiotic, Enzyme, Probiotic and Starter Culture Technologies, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Blaženka Kos
- 5 Laboratory of Antibiotic, Enzyme, Probiotic and Starter Culture Technologies, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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Zimmermann ZJ, Gauvin DV, Poling A. Discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine-levamisole combinations in Sprague-Dawley rats. J Psychopharmacol 2018; 32:900-910. [PMID: 29916760 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118773545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Levamisole (LVM) is a common adulterant in clandestinely manufactured cocaine (COC), with a range of well-documented deleterious health effects. Although the prevalence of LVM in COC has been widely noted, the subjective effects related to concomitant COC-LVM administration are poorly understood. AIMS The present study sought to compare the subjective effects of LVM alone and in combination with COC in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate COC from vehicle injections. METHODS Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate COC from vehicle injections using a two-lever, food-reinforced drug discrimination procedure. Subsequent dose-effect curves were generated for COC, LVM, and a variety of COC-LVM combinations. RESULTS No significant difference in males and females was observed on any measure of responding. LVM alone dose-dependently decreased response rates and failed to produce substitution for COC. When LVM was administered with COC, previously ineffective doses of COC engendered COC-appropriate responding. CONCLUSIONS LVM potentiates the subjective effects of COC when administered concomitantly. These findings are consistent with the popular notion that LVM is added as an adulterant to COC to amplify the subjective effects of COC administration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David V Gauvin
- 1 Neurobehavioral Sciences Department, MPI Research, Mattawan, MI, USA
| | - Alan Poling
- 2 Department of Psychology, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
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Yang S, Zhang H, Zhang J, Li Y, Jin Y, Zhang S, De Saeger S, Li Y, Zhou J, Sun F, De Boevre M. Deglucosylation of zearalenone-14-glucoside in animals and human liver leads to underestimation of exposure to zearalenone in humans. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2779-2791. [PMID: 30019167 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2267-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G), the modified mycotoxin of zearalenone (ZEN), has attracted considerable attention due to its high potential to be hydrolyzed into ZEN, which would exert toxicity. It has been confirmed that the microflora could metabolize ZEN-14G to ZEN. However, the metabolic profile of ZEN-14G and whether it could be deglucosidated in the liver are unknown. To thoroughly investigate the metabolism of ZEN-14G, in vitro metabolism including phase I and phase II metabolism was studied using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. Additionally, in vivo metabolism of ZEN-14G was conducted in model animals, rats, by oral administration. As a result, 29 phase I metabolites and 6 phase II metabolites were identified and significant inter-species metabolic differences were observed as well. What is more, ZEN-14G could be considerably deglucosidated into its free form of ZEN after the incubation with animals and human liver microsomes in the absence of NADPH, which was mainly metabolized by human carboxylesterase CES-I and II. Furthermore, results showed that the major metabolic pathways of ZEN-14G were deglucosylation, hydroxylation, hydrogenation and glucuronidation. Although interspecies differences in the biotransformation of ZEN-14G were observed, ZEN, α-ZEL-14G, β-ZEL-14G, α-ZEL, ZEN-14G-16GlcA and ZEN-14GlcA were the major metabolites of ZEN-14G. Additionally, a larger yield of 6-OH-ZEN-14G and 8-OH-ZEN-14G was also observed in human liver microsomes. The obtained data would be of great importance for the safety assessment of modified mycotoxin, ZEN-14G, and provide another perspective for risk assessment of mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyan Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinzhen Zhang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Jin
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Suxia Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhui Zhou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Sun
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China.
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
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17
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18
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Kudlacek O, Hofmaier T, Luf A, Mayer FP, Stockner T, Nagy C, Holy M, Freissmuth M, Schmid R, Sitte HH. Cocaine adulteration. J Chem Neuroanat 2017; 83-84:75-81. [PMID: 28619473 PMCID: PMC7610562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is a naturally occurring and illicitly used psychostimulant drug. Cocaine acts at monoaminergic neurotransmitter transporters to block uptake of the monoamines, dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. The resulting increase of monoamines in the extracellular space underlies the positively reinforcing effects that cocaine users seek. In turn, this increase in monoamines underlies the development of addiction, and can also result in a number of severe side effects. Currently, cocaine is one of the most common illicit drugs available on the European market. However, cocaine is increasingly sold in impure forms. This trend is driven by cocaine dealers seeking to increase their profit margin by mixing ("cutting") cocaine with numerous other compounds ("adulterants"). Importantly, these undeclared compounds put cocaine consumers at risk, because consumers are not aware of the additional potential threats to their health. This review describes adulterants that have been identified in cocaine sold on the street market. Their typical pharmacological profile and possible reasons why these compounds can be used as cutting agents will be discussed. Since a subset of these adulterants has been found to exert effects similar to cocaine itself, we will discuss levamisole, the most frequently used cocaine cutting agent today, and its metabolite aminorex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Kudlacek
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tina Hofmaier
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anton Luf
- Medical University of Vienna, Clinical Department of Laboratory Medicine, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Felix P Mayer
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Stockner
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Constanze Nagy
- checkit!-Suchthilfe Wien gGmbH, Gumpendorferstraße8, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Freissmuth
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer Schmid
- Medical University of Vienna, Clinical Department of Laboratory Medicine, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Waehringerstrasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Center for Addiction Research and Science - Medical University Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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19
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Solomon N, Hayes J. Levamisole: A High Performance Cutting Agent. Acad Forensic Pathol 2017; 7:469-476. [PMID: 31239995 DOI: 10.23907/2017.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Levamisole is an imidazothiazole chemical most frequently used as an antihelminthic agent in cattle. Over the last decade, levamisole has been increasingly encountered as an additive in both powder and crack cocaine. A white powder with a "fish scale" appearance, the chemical is physically similar to powder cocaine. In vivo, levamisole is metabolized to aminorex, a compound with amphetamine-like psychostimulatory properties and a long half-life; a priori, this property allows levamisole to potentiate and prolong the stimulatory effects of cocaine while bulking up the drug to increase profit for the dealer. As use of cocaine cut with levamisole becomes more prevalent, complications directly attributable to the chemical are increasingly being recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Solomon
- St. George's University School of Medicine, Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation
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20
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Adverse effects of levamisole in cocaine users: a review and risk assessment. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:2303-2313. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1947-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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21
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Unexpected Complication of Cocaine-Associated Anti-Neutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody Vasculitis Related to Persistent In-Hospital Cocaine Use. J Addict Med 2017; 11:157-160. [DOI: 10.1097/adm.0000000000000290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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22
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Sena LCS, Matos HR, Dórea HS, Pimentel MF, de Santana DCAS, de Santana FJM. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on solidification of floating organic drop and high-performance liquid chromatography to the analysis of cocaine’s major adulterants in human urine. Toxicology 2017; 376:102-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2016.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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23
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Liu YWJ, Mutnuri S, Siddiqui SB, Weikle GR, Oladipo O, Ganti N, Beach RE, Afrouzian M. Levamisole-Adulterated Cocaine Nephrotoxicity: Ultrastructural Features. Am J Clin Pathol 2016; 145:720-6. [PMID: 27247374 DOI: 10.1093/ajcp/aqw029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The issue of levamisole-adulterated cocaine is emerging as a rapidly growing public health concern due to an increasing number of reports describing its role in cutaneous vasculitis and agranulocytosis. Of note, levamisole is recognized as a contaminant in 69% of the cocaine used within the United States. METHODS We describe a patient who was a chronic cocaine user and developed systemic vasculitis characterized by polyarthralgia, bullous skin lesions, agranulocytosis, and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-positive rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. RESULTS The skin biopsy specimen demonstrated leukocytoclastic vasculitis. The renal biopsy specimen revealed pauci-immune necrotizing and crescentic glomerulonephritis and unusual deposits with medium electron density composed of granules, microspherules, and rare single fibrils on electron microscopy. CONCLUSIONS The electron microscopic features of levamisole-adulterated cocaine toxicity are novel findings that are presented for the first time, to our knowledge, in this report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Wei Justin Liu
- From the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
| | | | | | | | | | - Niharika Ganti
- Division of Rheumatology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
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24
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Jamey C, Kintz P, Raul JS. Lévamisole et cocaïne : une association à surveiller. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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25
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26
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Karch SB, Vaiano F, Bertol E. Levamisole, Aminorex, and Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Review. RAZAVI INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2015. [DOI: 10.17795/rijm28277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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27
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Eiden C, Peyrière H, Diot C, Mathieu O. Prevalence of levamisole and aminorex in patients tested positive for cocaine in a French University Hospital. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015; 53:604-8. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2015.1054499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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28
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Pawlik E, Mahler H, Hartung B, Plässer G, Daldrup T. Drug-related death: Adulterants from cocaine preparations in lung tissue and blood. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 249:294-303. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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29
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Recurrent febrile neutropenia and thrombocytopenia in a chronic cocaine user: a case of levamisole induced complications. Case Rep Crit Care 2015; 2015:303098. [PMID: 25874134 PMCID: PMC4385627 DOI: 10.1155/2015/303098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cocaine is used by approximately 1.5 million Americans each month and up to 69% of the cocaine seized contains levamisole. The real incidence of cocaine-levamisole induced neutropenia is unclear but probably underestimated. Associated complications include fever, thrombocytopenia, skin-vasculitis disorders, and rarely kidney injury. We present a young male, with chronic active cocaine use presenting with recurrent episodes of febrile neutropenia and thrombocytopenia. He underwent extensive work-up and was treated with many antibiotics and we suspect that his neutropenia and thrombocytopenia were caused by recurrent cocaine-levamisole use.
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Karch SB, Defraia B, Messerini L, Mari F, Vaiano F, Bertol E. Aminorex associated with possible idiopathic pulmonary hypertension in a cocaine user. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 240:e7-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Current bioanalytical methods for pharmacokinetic studies of drugs used in neglected tropical diseases. Bioanalysis 2014; 6:1711-23. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases are conditions directly associated to poverty and affect millions of people in tropical areas. Considering the necessity of pharmacokinetic and therapeutic drug monitoring studies to assess the disposition of agents clinically employed in the treatment of these diseases, especially in the involved population, this article will overview the current bioanalytical methods developed in the last 10 years, particularly those fully validated and using standard techniques, such as chromatographic procedures combined or not with mass spectrometry. The characteristics of each assay reported will be summarized and critically discussed. Furthermore, emphasis will also be given to the pros and cons in order to highlight the application of each method, especially in routine laboratories.
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32
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Brandt SD, Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Kavanagh PV, Power JD, Talbot B, Twamley B, Mahony O, O'Brien J, Elliott SP, Archer RP, Patrick J, Singh K, Dempster NM, Cosbey SH. Characterization of a novel and potentially lethal designer drug (±)-cis-para-methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4'-DMAR, or 'Serotoni'). Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:684-95. [PMID: 24841869 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2014] [Revised: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
During the second half of 2013, a total of 26 deaths involving para-methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4'-DMAR) were reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. While aminorex and 4-methylaminorex (4-MAR) are known psychostimulants, nothing is known about the comparatively new para-methyl analog. Analytical characterization of two independent samples obtained from online vendors confirmed the presence of the (±)-cis isomer that also appeared to be associated with at least 18 of the 26 deaths. Extensive characterizations included crystal structure analysis, single, tandem, and high-resolution mass spectrometry, liquid and gas chromatography, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. For the work described here, both the (±)-cis and (±)-trans racemates were also synthesized, confirming that the differentiation between these two forms was straight-forward. Monoamine transporter activity was studied using rat brain synaptosomes which included the comparison with d-amphetamine, aminorex and (±)-cis-4-MAR. (±)-cis-4,4'-DMAR was a potent, efficacious substrate-type releaser at transporters for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin with EC50 values of 8.6 ± 1.1 nM (DAT), 26.9 ± 5.9 nM (NET) and 18.5 ± 2.8 nM (SERT), respectively. The potency of (±)-cis-4,4'-DMAR at DAT and NET rivalled that of other psychomotor stimulant drugs like d-amphetamine and aminorex. However, (±)-cis-4,4'-DMAR had much more potent actions at SERT and activity at SERT varied more than 100-fold across the four drugs. The potent releasing activity of (±)-cis-4,4'-DMAR at all three monoamine transporters predicts a potential for serious side-effects such as psychotic symptoms, agitation, hyperthermia and cardiovascular stimulation, especially after high-dose exposure or following combination with other psychostimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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Hess C, Ritke N, Sydow K, Mehling LM, Ruehs H, Madea B, Musshoff F. Determination of levamisole, aminorex, and pemoline in plasma by means of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and application to a pharmacokinetic study of levamisole. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:1049-54. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cornelius Hess
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
| | - Natalie Ritke
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
| | - Konrad Sydow
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
| | - Lena-Maria Mehling
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
| | - Hauke Ruehs
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 D-53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Burkhard Madea
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bonn; Stiftsplatz 12 D-53111 Bonn Germany
- Forensic Toxicological Centre (FTC); Bayerstr. 53 D-80335 Munich Germany
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Hofmaier T, Luf A, Seddik A, Stockner T, Holy M, Freissmuth M, Ecker GF, Schmid R, Sitte HH, Kudlacek O. Aminorex, a metabolite of the cocaine adulterant levamisole, exerts amphetamine like actions at monoamine transporters. Neurochem Int 2013; 73:32-41. [PMID: 24296074 PMCID: PMC4077236 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We quantified adulterants in street drugs sold as cocaine. We analyzed effects of the most common adulterant levamisole, on neurotransmitter transporters. Differences in the selectivity of levamisole can be explained by homology modelling and docking. Aminorex, a metabolite of levamisole, modulates neurotransmitter transporters directly. Depending on the transporter, aminorex acts as a blocker or as a releaser.
Psychostimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine are illicitly used drugs that act on neurotransmitter transporters for dopamine, serotonin or norepinephrine. These drugs can by themselves already cause severe neurotoxicity. However, an additional health threat arises from adulterant substances which are added to the illicit compound without declaration. One of the most frequently added adulterants in street drugs sold as cocaine is the anthelmintic drug levamisole. We tested the effects of levamisole on neurotransmitter transporters heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells. Levamisole was 100 and 300-fold less potent than cocaine in blocking norepinephrine and dopamine uptake, and had only very low affinity for the serotonin transporter. In addition, levamisole did not trigger any appreciable substrate efflux. Because levamisole and cocaine are frequently co-administered, we searched for possible allosteric effects; at 30 μM, a concentration at which levamisole displayed already mild effects on norepinephrine transport it did not enhance the inhibitory action of cocaine. Levamisole is metabolized to aminorex, a formerly marketed anorectic drug, which is classified as an amphetamine-like substance. We examined the uptake-inhibitory and efflux-eliciting properties of aminorex and found it to exert strong effects on all three neurotransmitter transporters in a manner similar to amphetamine. We therefore conclude that while the adulterant levamisole itself has only moderate effects on neurotransmitter transporters, its metabolite aminorex may exert distinct psychostimulant effects by itself. Given that the half-time of levamisole and aminorex exceeds that of cocaine, it may be safe to conclude that after the cocaine effect “fades out” the levamisole/aminorex effect “kicks in”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Hofmaier
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anton Luf
- Clinical Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 10-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Amir Seddik
- University of Vienna, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Stockner
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Freissmuth
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard F Ecker
- University of Vienna, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer Schmid
- Clinical Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 10-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Oliver Kudlacek
- Institute of Pharmacology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13A, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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