1
|
Schrader M. Origins, Technological Advancement, and Applications of Peptidomics. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2758:3-47. [PMID: 38549006 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3646-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Peptidomics is the comprehensive characterization of peptides from biological sources instead of heading for a few single peptides in former peptide research. Mass spectrometry allows to detect a multitude of peptides in complex mixtures and thus enables new strategies leading to peptidomics. The term was established in the year 2001, and up to now, this new field has grown to over 3000 publications. Analytical techniques originally developed for fast and comprehensive analysis of peptides in proteomics were specifically adjusted for peptidomics. Although it is thus closely linked to proteomics, there are fundamental differences with conventional bottom-up proteomics. Fundamental technological advancements of peptidomics since have occurred in mass spectrometry and data processing, including quantification, and more slightly in separation technology. Different strategies and diverse sources of peptidomes are mentioned by numerous applications, such as discovery of neuropeptides and other bioactive peptides, including the use of biochemical assays. Furthermore, food and plant peptidomics are introduced similarly. Additionally, applications with a clinical focus are included, comprising biomarker discovery as well as immunopeptidomics. This overview extensively reviews recent methods, strategies, and applications including links to all other chapters of this book.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schrader
- Department of Bioengineering Sciences, Weihenstephan-Tr. University of Applied Sciences, Freising, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vasileva ID, Samgina TY, Meng Z, Zubarev RA, Lebedev AT. EThcD Benefits for the Sequencing Inside Intramolecular Disulfide Cycles of Amphibian Intact Peptides. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:1979-1988. [PMID: 37525119 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Disulfide bonds formed by a pair of cysteine residues in the peptides' backbone represent a certain problem for their sequencing by means of mass spectrometry. As a rule, in proteomics, disulfide bonds should be cleaved before the analysis followed by some sort of chemical derivatization. That step is time-consuming and may lead to losses of minor peptides of the analyzed mixtures due to incomplete reaction, adsorption on the walls of the vials, etc. Certain problems in the de novo top-down sequencing of amphibian skin peptides are caused by the C-terminal disulfide loop, called the Rana box. Its reduction with or without subsequent derivatization was considered to be an unavoidable step before mass spectrometry. In the present study, EThcD demonstrated its efficiency in sequencing intact disulfide-containing peptides without any preliminary derivatization. Applied to the secretion of three frog species, EThcD provided the full sequence inside the intramolecular disulfide cycle for all S-S-containing peptides found in the samples, with the only exception being diarginine species. Proteolytic fragments, which are shorter than the original peptides, were helpful in some cases. HCD should be mentioned as a complementary tool to the EThcD tool, being useful as a confirmation method for some sequence details.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina D Vasileva
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana Yu Samgina
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Zhaowei Meng
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry and Biophysics, Division of Molecular Biometry, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Roman A Zubarev
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry and Biophysics, Division of Molecular Biometry, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tolpina MD, Vasileva ID, Samgina TY. Modern Approaches in de novo Sequencing of Nontryptic Peptides of Ranid and Hylid Frogs by Means of Mass Spectrometry: A Review. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934822130081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
4
|
Samgina TY, Vasileva ID, Trebse P, Torkar G, Surin AK, Meng Z, Zubarev RA, Lebedev AT. Mass Spectrometry Differentiation between Rana arvalis Populations Based on Their Skin Peptidome Composition. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2022; 33:1480-1491. [PMID: 35820801 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.2c00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Skin secretion of amphibians often represents the only weapon of these species against pathogens and predators. Peptides constitute the major portion of active molecules of that weapon and may be treated as potential pharmaceuticals for future generations. The first step of their efficient use involves establishing of their primary structure, i.e., sequencing. De novo sequencing by means of mass spectrometry was applied to Rana arvalis species, collected in the spring 2021 in Central Slovenia (vicinity of Ljubljana). HPLC-ESI-HRMS/MS with Orbitrap instruments was used to establish the skin peptidome of these species and compare it with the earlier identified skin peptidome of the Moscow population of Rana arvalis. Application of CID, HCD, ETD, and EThcD enabled detecting and sequencing 18 peptides; five of them were novel and may be treated as possible biomarkers of the Ljubljana population of Rana arvalis. Interestingly, representatives of two peptide families (temporins and brevinins 2) were not found in the Moscow population. MS3 modes, first of all EThcD, demonstrated their great potential in the de novo sequencing, including extraction of the sequence information from the intact peptides with disulfide cycle (rana box) in their structure and differentiation of isomeric Leu/Ile residues. Thus, all six isomeric residues were reliably distinguished in the novel melittin-related peptide AK-23-1. In addition, another post-translational modification dealing with carbonylation of the N-terminal Gly of novel temporin AVa was established using the MS3 mode. The obtained results demonstrate the efficiency of the use of MS3 tools in proteomics/peptidomics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Yu Samgina
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, Moscow 119991 Russia
| | - Irina D Vasileva
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, Moscow 119991 Russia
| | - Polonca Trebse
- University of Ljubljana Faculty of Health Sciences, Zdravstvena pot 5, Ljubljana 1000 Slovenia
- MASSECO d.o.o. Erazmova 20, Postojna 6230, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Torkar
- University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education, Department for Biology, Chemistry and Home Economics, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, Ljubljana 1000 Slovenia
| | - Alexey K Surin
- Pushchino Branch, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki 6, Pushchino, Moscow 142290, Russia
| | - Zhaowei Meng
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry and Biophysics, Division of Molecular Biometry, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17177 Sweden
| | - Roman A Zubarev
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry and Biophysics, Division of Molecular Biometry, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17177 Sweden
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Organic Chemistry, Moscow 119991 Russia
- MASSECO d.o.o. Erazmova 20, Postojna 6230, Slovenia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lebedev AT, Vasileva ID, Samgina TY. FT-MS in the de novo top-down sequencing of natural nontryptic peptides. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2022; 41:284-313. [PMID: 33347655 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The present review covers available results on the application of FT-MS for the de novo sequencing of natural peptides of various animals: cones, bees, snakes, amphibians, scorpions, and so forth. As these peptides are usually bioactive, the animals efficiently use them as a weapon against microorganisms or higher animals including predators. These peptides represent definite interest as drugs of future generations since the mechanism of their activity is completely different in comparison with that of the modern antibiotics. Utilization of those peptides as antibiotics can eliminate the problem of the bacterial resistance development. Sequence elucidation of these bioactive peptides becomes even more challenging when the species genome is not available and little is known about the protein origin and other properties of those peptides in the study. De novo sequencing may be the only option to obtain sequence information. The benefits of FT-MS for the top-down peptide sequencing, the general approaches of the de novxxo sequencing, the difficult cases involving sequence coverage, isobaric and isomeric amino acids, cyclization of short peptides, the presence of posttranslational modifications will be discussed in the review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Albert T Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina D Vasileva
- Organic Chemistry Department, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana Y Samgina
- Organic Chemistry Department, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Samgina TY, Vasileva ID, Kovalev SV, Trebse P, Torkar G, Surin AK, Zubarev RA, Lebedev AT. Differentiation of Central Slovenian and Moscow populations of Rana temporaria frogs using peptide biomarkers of temporins family. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:5333-5347. [PMID: 34235566 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03506-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Skin secretion represents the only means of defense for the majority of frog species. That phenomenon is based on the fact that the main components of the secretion are peptides demonstrating greatly varying types of bioactivity. They fulfill regulatory functions, fight microorganisms and may be even helpful against predators. These peptides are considered to be rather promising pharmaceuticals of future generation as according to the present knowledge microorganisms are unlikely to develop resistance to them. Mass spectrometry sequencing of these peptides is the most efficient first step of their study providing reliably their primary structures, i.e., amino acids sequence and S-S bond motif. Besides discovering new bioactive peptides, mass spectrometry appears to be an efficient tool of taxonomy studies, allowing for distinguishing not only between closely related species, but also between populations of the same species. Application of several tandem mass spectrometry tools (CID, HCD, ETD, EThcD) available with Orbitrap mass analyzer allowed us to obtain full sequence of about 60 peptides in the secretion of Slovenian population of brown ranid frog Rana temporaria. The problem of sequence inside C-terminal cycle formed by two Cys and differentiation of isomeric Leu and Ile residues was done in top-down mode without any derivatization steps. Besides general biomarkers of Rana temporaria species, Central Slovenian population of Rana temporaria demonstrates six novel temporins and one brevinin 1, which may be treated as biomarkers of that population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Yu Samgina
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| | - I D Vasileva
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - S V Kovalev
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - P Trebse
- University of Ljubljana Faculty of Health Sciences, Zdravstvena pot 5, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - G Torkar
- Department for Biology, Chemistry and Home Economics, University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - A K Surin
- Pushchino Branch, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki 6, Pushchino, Moscow, 142290, Russia
| | - R A Zubarev
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry and Biophysics, Division of Molecular Biometry, Karolinska Institutet, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Pharmacological & Technological Chemistry, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, 119146, Russia
| | - A T Lebedev
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Samgina TY, Tolpina MD, Surin AK, Kovalev SV, Bosch RA, Alonso IP, Garcia FA, Gonzalez Lopez LJ, Lebedev AT. Manual mass spectrometry de novo sequencing of the anionic host defense peptides of the Cuban Treefrog Osteopilus septentrionalis. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e9061. [PMID: 33527491 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Host defense peptides accumulated in the skin glands of the animals constitute the basis of the adaptive and immune system of amphibians. The peptidome of the Cuban frog Osteopilus septentrionalis was established using tandem mass spectrometry as the best analytical tool to elucidate the sequence of these peptides. METHODS Manual interpretation of complementary collision-induced dissociation (CID), higher energy collision-induced dissociation (HCD), and electron transfer dissociation (ETD) tandem mass spectra recorded with an Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer in liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) mode was used to sequence the peptide components of the frog skin secretion, obtained by mild electrostimulation. RESULTS Although the vast majority of amphibian peptides discovered so far are cationic, surprisingly only anionic peptides were identified in the skin secretion of the Cuban frog Osteopilus septentrionalis. Mass spectrometry allowed the sequences to be established of 16 representatives of new peptide families: septenins 1 and septenins 2. The highest sequence coverage when dealing with these anionic peptides was obtained with CID normalized collision energy 35 and HCD normalized collision energy 28. CONCLUSIONS Mirror-symmetrical peptides are sequenced using N-terminal acetylation. Acetylated Ser is reliably distinguished from isomeric Glu by the loss of ketene from b-ions containing the corresponding residue. Calculations of the physicochemical and structural properties of the discovered anionic septenins 1 and 2 allowed the mechanism of their interaction with microbe cells to be postulated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Y Samgina
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Maria D Tolpina
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Alexey K Surin
- Pushchino Branch, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki 6, Pushchino, Moscow, 142290, Russia
| | - Sergey V Kovalev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Roberto Alonso Bosch
- Museum of Natural History "Felipe Poey", Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
| | - Isel Pascual Alonso
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
| | | | - Luis Javier Gonzalez Lopez
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Department of Proteomics, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, PO Box 6162, Havana, Cuba
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Raaymakers C, Stijlemans B, Martin C, Zaman S, Ballet S, Martel A, Pasmans F, Roelants K. A New Family of Diverse Skin Peptides from the Microhylid Frog Genus Phrynomantis. Molecules 2020; 25:E912. [PMID: 32085597 PMCID: PMC7070584 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
A wide range of frogs produce skin poisons composed of bioactive peptides for defence against pathogens, parasites and predators. While several frog families have been thoroughly screened for skin-secreted peptides, others, like the Microhylidae, have remained mostly unexplored. Previous studies of microhylids found no evidence of peptide secretion, suggesting that this defence adaptation was evolutionarily lost. We conducted transcriptome analyses of the skins of Phrynomantis bifasciatus and Phrynomantis microps, two African microhylid species long suspected to be poisonous. Our analyses reveal 17 evolutionary related transcripts that diversified from to those of cytolytic peptides found in other frog families. The 19 peptides predicted to be processed from these transcripts, named phrynomantins, show a striking structural diversity that is distinct from any previously identified frog skin peptide. Functional analyses of five phrynomantins confirm the loss of a cytolytic function and the absence of insecticidal or proinflammatory activity, suggesting that they represent an evolutionary transition to a new, yet unknown function. Our study shows that peptides have been retained in the defence poison of at least one microhylid lineage and encourages research on similarly understudied taxa to further elucidate the diversity and evolution of skin defence molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Constantijn Raaymakers
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Benoit Stijlemans
- Unit of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium;
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Centre for Inflammation Research, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Martin
- Research Group of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Department of Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Shabnam Zaman
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
| | - Steven Ballet
- Research Group of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Department of Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.M.); (S.B.)
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Kim Roelants
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Conlon JM, Mechkarska M, Leprince J. Peptidomic analysis in the discovery of therapeutically valuable peptides in amphibian skin secretions. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:897-908. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1693894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Michael Conlon
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Milena Mechkarska
- Department of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies at Saint Augustine, Saint Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Jérôme Leprince
- Equipe Facteurs Neurotrophiques et Différenciation Neuronale, Universite de Rouen, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Samgina TY, Kovalev SV, Tolpina MD, Trebse P, Torkar G, Lebedev AT. EThcD Discrimination of Isomeric Leucine/Isoleucine Residues in Sequencing of the Intact Skin Frog Peptides with Intramolecular Disulfide Bond. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2018; 29:842-852. [PMID: 29299834 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-017-1857-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Our scientific interests involve de novo sequencing of non-tryptic natural amphibian skin peptides including those with intramolecular S-S bond by means of exclusively mass spectrometry. Reliable discrimination of the isomeric leucine/isoleucine residues during peptide sequencing by means of mass spectrometry represents a bottleneck in the workflow for complete automation of the primary structure elucidation of these compounds. MS3 is capable of solving the problem. Earlier we demonstrated the advanced efficiency of ETD-HCD method to discriminate Leu/Ile in individual peptides by consecutive application of ETD to the polyprotonated peptides followed by HCD applied to the manually selected primary z-ions with the targeted isomeric residues at their N-termini and registration of the characteristic w-ions. Later this approach was extended to deal with several (4-7) broad band mass ranges, without special isolation of the primary z-ions. The present paper demonstrates an advanced version of this method when EThcD is applied in the whole mass range to a complex mixture of natural non-tryptic peptides without their separation and intermediate isolation of the targeted z-ions. The proposed EThcD method showed over 81% efficiency for the large natural peptides with intact disulfide ring, while the interfering process of radical site migration is suppressed. Due to higher speed and sensitivity, the proposed EThcD approach facilitates the analytical procedure and allows for the automation of the entire experiment and data processing. Moreover, in some cases it gives a chance to establish the nature of the residues in the intact intramolecular disulfide loops. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Yu Samgina
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey V Kovalev
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Miriam D Tolpina
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Polonca Trebse
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Torkar
- Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|