Disulfide-modified antigen for detection of celiac disease-associated anti-tissue transglutaminase autoantibodies

Recent Advances in Biosensors for Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diseases

Over the last decade, autoimmune diseases (ADs) have undergone a significant increase because of genetic and/or environmental factors; therefore, their simple and fast diagnosis is of high importance. The conventional diagnostic techniques for ADs require tedious sample preparation, sophisticated instruments, a dedicated laboratory, and qualified personnel. For these reasons, biosensors could represent a useful alternative to these methods. Biosensors are considered to be promising tools that can be used in clinical analysis for an early diagnosis due to their high sensitivity, simplicity, low cost, possible miniaturization (POCT), and potential ability for real-time analysis. In this review, recently developed biosensors for the detection of autoimmune disease biomarkers are discussed. In the first part, we focus on the main AD biomarkers and the current methods of their detection. Then, we discuss the principles and different types of biosensors. Finally, we overview the characteristics of biosensors based on different bioreceptors reported in the literature.

Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review

Immunosensors are a special class of biosensors that employ specific antibodies for biorecognition of the target analyte. Immunosensors that target disease biomarkers may be exploited as tools for disease diagnosis and/or follow-up, offering several advantages over conventional analytical techniques, such as rapid and easy analysis of patients' samples at the point-of-care. Autoimmune diseases have been increasingly prevalent worldwide in recent years, while the COVID-19 pandemic has also been associated with autoimmunity. Consequently, demand for tools enabling the early and reliable diagnosis of autoimmune diseases is expected to increase in the near future. To this end, interest in immunosensors targeting autoimmune disease biomarkers, mainly, various autoantibodies and specific pro-inflammatory proteins (e.g., specific cytokines), has been rekindled. This review article presents most of the immunosensors proposed to date as potential tools for the diagnosis of various autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. The signal transduction and the immunoassay principles of each immunosensor have been suitably classified and are briefly presented along with certain sensor elements, e.g., special nano-sized materials used in the construction of the immunosensing surface. The main concluding remarks are presented and future perspectives of the field are also briefly discussed.

The Underlying Effects of Celiac Disease and Subsequent Implications on Deployment in the United States Army

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the etiology, pathology, and treatments for celiac disease (CD), as well as to provide context as to how CD impacts the U.S. military.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To conduct this review, the authors surveyed recent epidemiology and immunology literature in order to provide a detailed summary of the current understanding of CD, its diagnosis, and the real-world impacts within the Department of Defense (DoD).

RESULTS

We described the gluten proteins and both the immune response in CD. We further describe the underlying genetic risk factors and diagnosis and pathogenesis of the disease and conclude the review with a discussion of how current DoD regulations impact U.S. military readiness.

CONCLUSION

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune disorder that results in damage to the small intestine. Ingestion of gluten in a CD patient is usually followed by villous atrophy in the small intestine, often along with other gastrointestinal symptoms. Around 1% of patients diagnosed with CD can experience complications if gluten-free diet is not followed, including intestinal lymphoma and hyposplenism. Therefore, a patient showing possible symptoms should discuss the diagnostic process with their healthcare providers to ensure adequate understanding of serological and genetic tests along with the histological examination of intestinal biopsy. Patients should seek consults with registered dietitians to structure their diets appropriately. Considering the prevalence and incidence of CD and gluten intolerances are increasing, the military should consider providing gluten-free Meals Ready-to-Eat as an option for all service members. Given the retention of service members with CD, subsequent admission of personnel with mild CD that does not affect the duties will allow the DoD access to a growing population of fully capable service members with critical technical skills who are eager to serve the USA.

Advances in celiac disease testing

Celiac disease (CD) is a T cell-mediated inflammatory autoimmune disorder of the upper small intestine caused by the ingestion of gluten. It is increasingly recognized as a global problem by experts and societies. The diagnosis of CD is of crucial importance because its delay strongly affects patient's health and quality of life. The diagnosis of CD is, however, complex and requires reliable, sensitive, specific, rapid, simple, and cost-effective, as well-as non-invasive analytical tools. There is also a high demand to develop simple point-of-care (POC) tests for non-specialists at home or in doctors' offices. Analytical techniques are now moving toward the development of fast, more simple, non-invasive, and POC analyses. The present review focuses on recent advances of CD biomarker detection in body fluids, concerning CD specific autoantibody detection in blood and saliva using electrochemical, optic-fiber, and piezoelectric biosensors and POC finger-prick tests, and identifying CD characteristic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urine and feces.

Recent advances in biosensors for diagnosis of celiac disease: A review

Celiac disease (CD) is an intestinal issue activated by the inappropriate immune reaction towards gluten protein of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and autoantigen, tissue transglutaminase. Regardless of the accessibility of immunochemical conventions for research facility analysis of CD, there is as yet a need of speedier, less expensive, and simpler devices for diagnosing CD. This review concentrates on progresses in biosensors for diagnosing CD in perspective of the scaled down hardware, multianalyte discovery and low sample volume necessity. Various recently developed biosensors in this field are presented.

Biosensors for Non-Invasive Detection of Celiac Disease Biomarkers in Body Fluids

Celiac disease is a chronic gluten-initiated autoimmune disorder that predominantly damages the mucosa of the small intestine in genetically-susceptible individuals. It affects a large and increasing number of the world’s population. The diagnosis of this disease and monitoring the response of patients to the therapy, which is currently a life-long gluten-free diet, require the application of reliable, rapid, sensitive, selective, simple, and cost-effective analytical tools. Celiac disease biomarker detection in full blood, serum, or plasma offers a non-invasive way to do this and is well-suited to being the first step of diagnosis. Biosensors provide a novel and alternative way to perform conventional techniques in biomarker sensing, in which electrode material and architecture play important roles in achieving sensitive, selective, and stable detection. There are many opportunities to build and modify biosensor platforms using various materials and detection methods, and the aim of the present review is to summarize developments in this field.

Construction and Potential Applications of Biosensors for Proteins in Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis

Biosensors for proteins have shown attractive advantages compared to traditional techniques in clinical laboratory diagnosis. In virtue of modern fabrication modes and detection techniques, various immunosensing platforms have been reported on basis of the specific recognition between antigen-antibody pairs. In addition to profit from the development of nanotechnology and molecular biology, diverse fabrication and signal amplification strategies have been designed for detection of protein antigens, which has led to great achievements in fast quantitative and simultaneous testing with extremely high sensitivity and specificity. Besides antigens, determination of antibodies also possesses great significance for clinical laboratory diagnosis. In this review, we will categorize recent immunosensors for proteins by different detection techniques. The basic conception of detection techniques, sensing mechanisms, and the relevant signal amplification strategies are introduced. Since antibodies and antigens have an equal position to each other in immunosensing, all biosensing strategies for antigens can be extended to antibodies under appropriate optimizations. Biosensors for antibodies are summarized, focusing on potential applications in clinical laboratory diagnosis, such as a series of biomarkers for infectious diseases and autoimmune diseases, and an evaluation of vaccine immunity. The excellent performances of these biosensors provide a prospective space for future antibody-detection-based disease serodiagnosis.

Ultrasensitive transglutaminase based nanosensor for early detection of celiac disease in human

A GQD/PAMAM nanohybrid modified on gold nanoparticles (AuNP) embedded in multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) based immunosensor was developed for detection of celiac disease in human. The AuNP embedded in MWCNT were linked with thiol groups of cysteine and amino groups were further coupled with carboxyl moieties of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) using EDC-NHS cross-linking chemistry. To enhance the sensitivity of the sensor, polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer was attached with GQDs through carbodiimide coupling. The tissue transglutaminase (tTG) antigen was immobilized on PAMAM to form nanoprobe for sensing specific anti-tissue transglutaminase (anti-tTG) antibodies (immunoglobin A isotype) in human serum. The electrochemical changes after specific binding of antibody with antigen was measured cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The modifications in sensor surface were characterized using FE-SEM. The sensor is highly specific to anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies and showed negligible response to non-specific serum proteins. The sensitivity of the sensor was 1297.14μA/cm²/pg with DPV and lower limit of detection of anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody was found 0.1fg per 6μl.