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Alqarni AM. Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review. Molecules 2024; 29:3900. [PMID: 39202981 PMCID: PMC11357415 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29163900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2024] [Revised: 08/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Among the various compounds regarded as emerging contaminants (ECs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are of particular concern. Their continuous release into the environment has a negative global impact on human life. This review summarizes the sources, occurrence, persistence, consequences of exposure, and toxicity of PPCPs, and evaluates the various analytical methods used in the identification and quantification of PPCPs in a variety of solid and liquid environmental matrices. The current techniques of choice for the analysis of PPCPs are state-of-the-art liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS2). However, the complexity of the environmental matrices and the trace levels of micropollutants necessitate the use of advanced sample treatments before these instrumental analyses. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) with different sorbents is now the predominant method used for the extraction of PPCPs from environmental samples. This review also addresses the ongoing analytical method challenges, including sample clean-up and matrix effects, focusing on the occurrence, sample preparation, and analytical methods presently available for the determination of environmental residues of PPCPs. Continuous development of innovative analytical methods is essential for overcoming existing limitations and ensuring the consistency and diversity of analytical methods used in investigations of environmental multi-class compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulmalik M Alqarni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, King Faisal Road, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
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Development of sol-gel silica-based mixed-mode zwitterionic sorbents for determining drugs in environmental water samples. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1676:463237. [PMID: 35752147 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Four novel mixed-mode zwitterionic silica-based functionalized with strong moieties sorbents were synthesized and evaluated through solid-phase extraction (SPE) to determine acidic and basic drugs in environmental water samples. All sorbents had the same functionalization: quaternary amine and sulfonic groups and C18 chains so that hydrophobic and strong cationic exchange (SCX) and strong anionic exchange (SAX) interactions could be exploited, in addition, two of them had carbon microparticles embedded. All sorbents retained both acidic and basic compounds in the preliminary assays but only the basic compounds were retained selectively through ionic exchange interactions when a clean-up step was introduced. The SPE method was therefore optimized to promote the selective retention of the basic compounds, initially with the two best-performing sorbents. After optimization of the SPE protocol, these sorbents were evaluated for the analysis of environmental water samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method with the best-performing sorbent was then validated with 100 mL of river samples and 50 mL of effluent wastewater samples in terms of apparent recoveries (%Rapp) spiking samples at 50 ng/L (river) and 200 ng/L (river and effluent), matrix effect, linear range, method quantification and detection limits, repeatability, and reproducibility. It should be highlighted that %Rapp ranged from 40 to 85% and matrix effects ranged from -17 to -4% for spiked river samples. When the method was applied to river and effluent wastewater samples, most compounds were found in the range from 24 to 1233 ng/L with detection limits from 1 to 5 ng/L.
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Solid-phase extraction and fractionation of multiclass pollutants from wastewater followed by liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:4149-4165. [PMID: 35461386 PMCID: PMC9124662 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04066-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we describe a modular solid-phase extraction (SPE) setup, combining three sorbents, for the effective extraction of neutrals, acidic, and basic micropollutants from wastewater, followed by their further elution in three independent extracts. The performance of this approach was demonstrated for a suite of 64 compounds, corresponding to different chemical families, using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Target compounds were effectively extracted from wastewater samples; moreover, 62 out of 64 species were isolated in just one of the three fractions (neutrals, acids, and bases) obtained from the combination of sorbents. Globally, the efficiency and the selectivity of the SPE methodology improved the features obtained using generic SPE polymers, displaying just reversed-phase interactions. The overall recoveries of the analytical method, calculated against solvent-based calibration standards, stayed between 80 and 120% for 57 and 60 compounds, in raw and treated wastewater, respectively. Procedural limits of quantification (LOQs) varied from 1 to 20 ng L−1. Analysis of urban wastewater samples identified a group of 19 pollutants showing either negligible median removal efficiencies (± 20%) during wastewater treatment, or even a noticeable enhancement (case of the biodegradation product of the drug valsartan), which might be useful as markers of wastewater discharges in the aquatic environment.
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Nadal JC, Catalá-Icardo M, Borrull F, Herrero-Martínez JM, Marcé RM, Fontanals N. Weak anion-exchange mixed-mode materials to selectively extract acidic compounds by stir bar sorptive extraction from environmental waters. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1663:462748. [PMID: 34965484 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the first example of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-based magnet coated with weak anion exchange (WAX) monolith as novel support for stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) is presented. Firstly, the PTFE magnets were properly modified and vinylized in order to immobilize polymer monoliths onto its surface. Then, a glycidyl methacrylate monolith was prepared and modified with ethylenediamine (EDA) to create weak anion exchanger via ring opening reaction of epoxy groups. The prepared covalently immobilized EDA-modified monoliths onto PTFE magnet exhibited good stability and reusability. Application of resulting material as stir bar for SBSE was investigated for a series of acidic compounds that includes acesulfame, saccharin, diclofenac or ibuprofen, among others as target compounds. Firstly, the SBSE conditions were optimized to promote the WAX interactions with the target compounds achieving recoveries from 37 to 75% and enable the selective extraction of these compounds as it provided values of% matrix effect from 17 to -13% when they were determined by SBSE followed by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. The analytical methodology, was then validated and applied for the determination of the target solutes in environmental water samples, which were found at concentration up to 2500 ng L-1 in river waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Carles Nadal
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo 1, Tarragona 43007, Spain
| | - Mónica Catalá-Icardo
- Instituto de Investigación para la Gestión Integrada de Zonas Costeras, Campus de Gandia, Universitat Politècnica de València, C/ Paranimf 1, Grao de Gandia, Valencia 46730, Spain
| | - Francesc Borrull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo 1, Tarragona 43007, Spain
| | | | - Rosa Maria Marcé
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo 1, Tarragona 43007, Spain.
| | - Núria Fontanals
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo 1, Tarragona 43007, Spain
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Nadal JC, Dargo S, Borrull F, Cormack PAG, Fontanals N, Marcé RM. Hypercrosslinked polymer microspheres decorated with anion- and cation-exchange groups for the simultaneous solid-phase extraction of acidic and basic analytes from environmental waters. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1661:462715. [PMID: 34871939 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mixed-mode ion-exchange sorbents were introduced to improve the selectivity and retention of solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents. Mixed-mode ion-exchange sorbents integrate reversed-phase chemistry with ion-exchange groups to promote favourable interactions with ionic species. Nevertheless, a need to extract analytes with acidic and basic properties simultaneously within the same SPE cartridge led to the introduction of novel amphoteric/zwitterionic sorbents, which incorporate cation- and anion-exchange moieties within the same functional group attached to the polymeric network. In the present study, the development, preparation and SPE evaluation of two novel hypercrosslinked zwitterionic polymeric sorbents, functionalised with either strong anion-exchange (SAX) and weak cation-exchange (WCX) or weak anion-exchange (WAX) and strong cation-exchange (SCX) groups (namely HXLPP-SAX/WCX and the HXLPP-WAX/SCX), is presented for the simultaneous retention of acidic and basic compounds. The sorbents were prepared by a precipitation polymerisation route which yielded poly(divinylbenzene-co-vinylbenzylchloride) as a precursor polymer; subsequently, the precursor polymer was hypercrosslinked, to increase the specific surface areas and capacities of the sorbents, and then functionalised to impart the zwitterionic character. The HXLPP-SAX/WCX sorbent was decorated with quaternised sarcosine groups and the HXLPP-WAX/SCX sorbent was decorated with taurine moieties. The SPE parameters were optimised to exploit the ionic interactions between compounds and the functional groups. The optimal conditions involve a washing step to remove the compounds retained by hydrophobic interactions, thus increasing the selectivity. The optimised SPE protocol used the quaternised sarcosine-based sorbent followed by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry, and was applied to determine compounds with acidic and basic properties from environmental samples, such as river water and effluent wastewater samples, with excellent selectivity and matrix effect values below -30% and apparent recovery results ranging from 52% to 105% for most of the compounds. The analytical method was validated for environmental water samples and used in the analysis of samples in which some of the target compounds were found at ng L-1 concentration levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Carles Nadal
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Stuart Dargo
- WestCHEM, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Francesc Borrull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Peter A G Cormack
- WestCHEM, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, Scotland, United Kingdom.
| | - Núria Fontanals
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Rosa Maria Marcé
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
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Fontanals N, Zohar J, Borrull F, Ronka S, Marcé RM. Development of a maleic acid-based material to selectively solid-phase extract basic compounds from environmental samples. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1647:462165. [PMID: 33945931 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study presents a novel mixed-mode weak cation-exchange (WCX) material. This material was prepared by means of the functionalization of a mesoporous divinylbenzene (DVB) resin with maleic acid (maleic acid-DVB), which yielded a high carboxylic moiety content resulting in WCX interactions as well as suitable specific surface area for reversed-phase interactions. After the optimization of the solid-phase extraction (SPE) protocol to enhance the selectivity of the sorbent, this material was evaluated as a novel WCX sorbent in the SPE of a group of drugs from environmental water samples. The method is based on SPE followed by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) with an Orbitrap analyzer, and was validated and applied for the determination of basic drugs in river, effluent and influent wastewater samples. Maleic acid-DVB sorbent yielded suitable recovery rates (57% to 89%) and an acceptable matrix effect (<32%) thanks to the effective washing step included when these environmental waters were loaded through the novel resin. The method was applied to different environmental water samples and some basic drugs were suitably quantified in these environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Fontanals
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel•lí Domingo, 1, Campus Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
| | - J Zohar
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - F Borrull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel•lí Domingo, 1, Campus Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - S Ronka
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże, Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - R M Marcé
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel•lí Domingo, 1, Campus Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
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Sadutto D, Picó Y. Sample Preparation to Determine Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in an All-Water Matrix: Solid Phase Extraction. Molecules 2020; 25:E5204. [PMID: 33182304 PMCID: PMC7664861 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are abundantly used by people, and some of them are excreted unaltered or as metabolites through urine, with the sewage being the most important source to their release to the environment. These compounds are in almost all types of water (wastewater, surface water, groundwater, etc.) at concentrations ranging from ng/L to µg/L. The isolation and concentration of the PPCPs from water achieves the appropriate sensitivity. This step is mostly based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) but also includes other approaches (dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), buckypaper, SPE using multicartridges, etc.). In this review article, we aim to discuss the procedures employed to extract PPCPs from any type of water sample prior to their determination via an instrumental analytical technique. Furthermore, we put forward not only the merits of the different methods available but also a number of inconsistencies, divergences, weaknesses and disadvantages of the procedures found in literature, as well as the systems proposed to overcome them and to improve the methodology. Environmental applications of the developed techniques are also discussed. The pressing need for new analytical innovations, emerging trends and future prospects was also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Sadutto
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, Desertification Research Centre—CIDE (CSIC-UV-GV), University of Valencia (SAMA-UV), Moncada-Naquera Road, Km 4.5, 46113 Moncada, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, Desertification Research Centre—CIDE (CSIC-UV-GV), University of Valencia (SAMA-UV), Moncada-Naquera Road, Km 4.5, 46113 Moncada, Spain
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Nadal JC, Anderson KL, Dargo S, Joas I, Salas D, Borrull F, Cormack PA, Marcé RM, Fontanals N. Microporous polymer microspheres with amphoteric character for the solid-phase extraction of acidic and basic analytes. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1626:461348. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Nadal JC, Borrull F, Furton KG, Kabir A, Fontanals N, Marcé RM. Selective monitoring of acidic and basic compounds in environmental water by capsule phase microextraction using sol-gel mixed-mode sorbents followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in tandem. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1625:461295. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Mixed-mode ion-exchange polymeric sorbents in environmental analysis. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1609:460531. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Liang X, Hu P, Zhang H, Tan W. Hypercrosslinked strong anion-exchange polymers for selective extraction of fluoroquinolones in milk samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 166:379-386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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