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Higuera‐Llantén S, Alcalde‐Rico M, Vasquez‐Ponce F, Ibacache‐Quiroga C, Blazquez J, Olivares‐Pacheco J. A whole-cell hypersensitive biosensor for beta-lactams based on the AmpR-AmpC regulatory circuit from the Antarctic Pseudomonas sp. IB20. Microb Biotechnol 2024; 17:e14385. [PMID: 38197486 PMCID: PMC10832568 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Detecting antibiotic residues is vital to minimize their impact. Yet, existing methods are complex and costly. Biosensors offer an alternative. While many biosensors detect various antibiotics, specific ones for beta-lactams are lacking. To address this gap, a biosensor based on the AmpC beta-lactamase regulation system (ampR-ampC) from Pseudomonas sp. IB20, an Antarctic isolate, was developed in this study. The AmpR-AmpC system is well-conserved in the genus Pseudomonas and has been extensively studied for its involvement in peptidoglycan recycling and beta-lactam resistance. To create the biosensor, the ampC coding sequence was replaced with the mCherry fluorescent protein as a reporter, resulting in a transcriptional fusion. This construct was then inserted into Escherichia coli SN0301, a beta-lactam hypersensitive strain, generating a whole-cell biosensor. The biosensor demonstrated dose-dependent detection of penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems. However, the most interesting aspect of this work is the high sensitivity presented by the biosensor in the detection of carbapenems, as it was able to detect 8 pg/mL of meropenem and 40 pg/mL of imipenem and reach levels of 1-10 ng/mL for penicillins and cephalosporins. This makes the biosensor a powerful tool for the detection of beta-lactam antibiotics, specifically carbapenems, in different matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastián Higuera‐Llantén
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales, GRABPA, Instituto de BiologíaPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB‐R)ValparaísoChile
| | - Manuel Alcalde‐Rico
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales, GRABPA, Instituto de BiologíaPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB‐R)ValparaísoChile
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen Macarena, CSIC, Universidad de SevillaSevillaSpain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Felipe Vasquez‐Ponce
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales, GRABPA, Instituto de BiologíaPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB‐R)ValparaísoChile
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical SciencesUniversidade de São PauloSão PauloBrazil
| | - Claudia Ibacache‐Quiroga
- Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética, Facultad de FarmaciaUniversidad de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
- Centro de Micro‐BioinnovaciónUniversidad de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
| | - Jesús Blazquez
- National Center for Biotechnology, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)MadridSpain
| | - Jorge Olivares‐Pacheco
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales, GRABPA, Instituto de BiologíaPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoValparaísoChile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB‐R)ValparaísoChile
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Barone R, Conti M, Giorgi B, Gatti M, Cojutti PG, Viale P, Pea F. Fast and Sensitive Method for Simultaneous Quantification of Meropenem and Vaborbactam in Human Plasma Microsamples by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12040719. [PMID: 37107082 PMCID: PMC10135283 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12040719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Meropenem (MRP)-Vaborbactam (VBR) is a novel beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor used for the management of difficult-to-treat Gram-negative infections. Among critically ill patients, MRP-VBR shows remarkable inter-individual variability in pharmacokinetic behavior, thus justifying the implementation of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) for improving real-time management in different challenging scenarios. In this study, we developed and validated a fast and sensitive Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous quantification of MRP and VBR in human plasma microsamples of 3 microliters. The analysis required only a single-step sample preparation and was performed by means of a fast chromatographic run of 4 min, followed by positive electrospray ionization and detection on a high-sensitivity triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer operated in multiple reaction monitoring modes. The straightforward analytical procedure was successfully validated, based on the EMA guidelines, in terms of specificity, sensitivity, linearity, precision, accuracy, matrix effect, extraction recovery, the limit of quantification, and stability. The novel method was successfully applied for simultaneously measuring MRP and VBR concentrations in more than 42 plasma samples collected from critically ill patients affected by carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Barone
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Matteo Conti
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Beatrice Giorgi
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Milo Gatti
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Pier Giorgio Cojutti
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Pierluigi Viale
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Infectious Diseases Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Federico Pea
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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3
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Methods for Determination of Meropenem Concentration in Biological Samples. SERBIAN JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.2478/sjecr-2022-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Measuring the concentration of antibiotics in biological samples allow implementation of therapeutic monitoring of these drugs and contribute to the adjustment of the dosing regimen in patients. This increases the effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy, reduces the toxicity of these drugs and prevents the development of bacterial resistance. This review article summarizes current knowledge on methods for determining concentration of meropenem, an antibiotic drug from the group of carbapenems, in different biological samples. It provides a brief discussion of the chemical structure, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of meropenem, different sample preparation techniques, use of apparatus and equipment, knowledge of the advantages and limitations of available methods, as well as directions in which new methods should be developed. This review should facilitate clinical laboratories to select and apply one of the established methods for measuring of meropenem, as well as to provide them with the necessary knowledge to develop new methods for quantification of meropenem in biological samples according to their needs.
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Cao H, Yin L, Cao H, Guo H, Ren W, Li Y, Huang J. A sensitive and selective HPLC-MS 3 method for therapeutic drug monitoring of meropenem and its validation by comparison with HPLC-MS 2 methods. J Sep Sci 2022; 45:1683-1692. [PMID: 35247934 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202200064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Meropenem, a representative β-lactam antibiotic, is widely used to treat complicated and serious infections. Therefore, it is a great significance to monitor the plasma drug concentration for individualized antimicrobial therapy. This study first describes the development and validation of high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry cubed method for monitoring meropenem in human plasma. Protein precipitation with methanol and a chromatographic analysis time of 7 min make this method is simple and high-throughput. Meropenem was extracted from human plasma with recoveries greater than 94.1%. Calibration curves were linear (R2 >0.995) in the concentration range of 0.5-50 μg/mL. Overall accuracy and precision did not exceed 8.0% as well as no significant matrix effect was observed. The novelty of this method is that the triple-stage MS technology improves the selectivity and sensitivity. A comparison of the presented method and traditional liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was assessed in 44 patients treated with meropenem and Passing-Bablok regression coefficients and Bland-Altman plots showed that no significant difference between the two methods. So the triple-stage MS method developed in this study is appropriate and practical for the monitor of meropenem in the daily clinical laboratory practice. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiwei Cao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China
| | - Lei Yin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China.,School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, PR China
| | - Haihuan Cao
- Changchun Customs Technology Center, Puyang Street, Changchun, 130062, PR China
| | - Haiyang Guo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China
| | - Wenbo Ren
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China
| | - Yanyan Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China
| | - Jing Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130061, PR China
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Zhang X, Zhang ZQ, Zhang LC, Wang KX, Zhang LT, Li DQ. The development and validation of a sensitive HPLC-MS/MS method for the quantitative and pharmacokinetic study of the seven components of Buddleja lindleyana Fort. RSC Adv 2021; 11:26016-26028. [PMID: 35479475 PMCID: PMC9037101 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04154a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Buddleja lindleyana Fort., a traditional Chinese medicine, has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antidementia, neuroprotective, antibacterial, and antioxidant effects. Its flowers, leaves, and roots have been used as traditional Chinese medicines. A simple and rapid high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was applied in the multicomponent determination of Buddleja lindleyana Fort., and the discrepancies in the contents from ten different habitats were analyzed. The present study simultaneously determined the concentrations of seven chemical compounds of Buddleja lindleyana Fort. extract in rat plasma via HPLC-MS/MS, which was applied in the pharmacokinetic (PK) study of Buddleja lindleyana Fort. A C18 column was used for chromatographic separation, and ion acquisition was achieved by multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) in negative ionization mode. The optimized mass transition ion-pairs (m/z) for quantization were 591.5/282.8 for linarin, 609.4/300.2 for rutin, 284.9/133.0 for luteolin, 300.6/151.0 for quercetin, 268.8/116.9 for apigenin, 283.0/267.9 for acacetin, 623.3/160.7 for acteoside, and 252.2/155.8 for sulfamethoxazole (IS). A double peak appeared in the drug–time curve of apigenin, which was associated with entero-hepatic recirculation. There were discrepancies in the contents of seven chemical compounds from 10 batches of Buddleja lindleyana Fort., which were associated with the growth environments. Herein, the pharmacokinetic parameters of seven analytes in Buddleja lindleyana Fort. extract are summarized. The maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of linarin, rutin, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, acacetin and acteoside were 894.12 ± 9.34 ng mL−1, 130.76 ± 18.33 ng mL−1, 77.37 ± 25.72 ng mL−1, 20.15 ± 24.85 ng mL−1, 146.42 ± 14.88 ng mL−1, 31.92 ± 17.58 ng mL−1, and 649.78 ± 16.42 ng mL−1, respectively. The time to reach Cmax for linarin, rutin, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, acacetin, and acteoside were 10, 5, 5, 5, 180, 10 and 10 min, respectively. This is the first report on the simultaneous determination of seven active components for 10 different growing environments and the pharmacokinetic studies of seven active components in rat plasma after the oral administration of Buddleja lindleyana Fort. extract. This study lays the foundation for a better understanding of the absorption mechanism of Buddleja lindleyana Fort., and the evaluation of its clinical application. Quality control and pharmacokinetics of Buddleja lindleyana Fort by HPLC-MS/MS.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University Shijiazhuang 050000 P. R. China +86 0311-66636302 +86 18132685779
| | - Zhi-Qing Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University Shijiazhuang 050000 P. R. China +86 0311-66636302 +86 18132685779
| | - Li-Cang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University Shijiazhuang 050000 P. R. China +86 0311-66636302 +86 18132685779
| | - Ke-Xin Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University Shijiazhuang 050000 P. R. China +86 0311-66636302 +86 18132685779
| | - Lan-Tong Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Hebei Medical University P. R. China
| | - De-Qiang Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University Shijiazhuang 050000 P. R. China +86 0311-66636302 +86 18132685779
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6
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Van Vooren S, Verstraete AG. A sensitive and high-throughput quantitative liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry method for therapeutic drug monitoring of 10 β-lactam antibiotics, linezolid and two β-lactamase inhibitors in human plasma. Biomed Chromatogr 2021; 35:e5092. [PMID: 33590498 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
An ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometric (UHPLC-HRMS) method was developed for the simultaneous and sensitive quantification of 10 β-lactam antibiotics (cefepime, meropenem, amoxicillin, cefazolin, benzylpenicillin, ceftazidime, piperacillin, flucloxacillin, cefuroxime and aztreonam), linezolid and β-lactamase inhibitors tazobactam and clavulanic acid in human plasma. Validation according to the EMA guidelines showed excellent within- and between-run accuracy and precision (i.e. between 1.1 and 8.5%) and high sensitivity (i.e. lower limit of quantification between 0.25 and 1 mg/L). The UHPLC-HRMS method enables a short turnaround time and high sensitivity and needs only a small amount of plasma, allowing appropriate routine therapeutic drug monitoring. The short turnaround time is obtained by speeding up the protocol on multiple levels, i.e. fast and workload-efficient sample preparation (i.e. protein precipitation and dilution), short (4 min) instrument run time, simultaneous measurement of all relevant β-lactam antibiotics used in the intensive care unit and the use of the same instrument, column and mobile phases as for the other routine methods in our laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Van Vooren
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain G Verstraete
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ghent Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
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Pai Mangalore R, Padiglione AA, Martin E, Schneider HGF, Ngo‐Thai LL, McGloughlin SA, Peleg AY, Udy AA. Insufficient plasma concentrations of empiric anti‐pseudomonal beta‐lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients with suspected sepsis. JOURNAL OF PHARMACY PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jppr.1639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rekha Pai Mangalore
- Department of Infectious Diseases The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical SchoolMonash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Alexander A. Padiglione
- Department of Infectious Diseases The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical SchoolMonash University Melbourne Australia
- Department of Hyperbaric and Intensive Care Medicine The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases Monash Medical Centre Clayton Australia
| | - Emma‐Leah Martin
- Department of Hyperbaric and Intensive Care Medicine The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
- Pharmacy The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
| | | | - Lam Lan Ngo‐Thai
- Department of Hyperbaric and Intensive Care Medicine The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
- Pharmacy The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
| | - Steven A. McGloughlin
- Department of Infectious Diseases The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical SchoolMonash University Melbourne Australia
- Department of Hyperbaric and Intensive Care Medicine The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Anton Y. Peleg
- Department of Infectious Diseases The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical SchoolMonash University Melbourne Australia
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Andrew A. Udy
- Department of Hyperbaric and Intensive Care Medicine The Alfred Hospital Melbourne Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine Monash University Melbourne Australia
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Kammoun AK, Khedr A, Khayyat AN, Hegazy MA. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method for quantitation of the recently Food and Drug Administration approved combination of vaborbactam and meropenem in human plasma. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200635. [PMID: 32874656 PMCID: PMC7428257 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A parenteral medical combination containing vaborbactam and meropenem is used mainly to treat complicated urinary tract infections. A novel ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric method was developed for the sensitive determination of both compounds in human plasma. Sample preparation was performed by precipitation technique. The chromatographic separation was accomplished using the Acquity C18-BEH column, 0.01 M ammonium formate: acetonitrile (47 : 53, v/v) as a mobile phase with a flow rate of 0.2 ml min-1. Analytes were monitored by applying multiple reaction monitoring. The bioanalytical validation criteria were conducted following the Food and Drug Administration recommendations. The method was linear within range 0.5 to 50 µg ml-1, for both drugs. The intra-day and inter-day precision, as coefficient variation (% CV) and the accuracy, as % bias did not exceed 15% for both drugs. The percentage recovery of targeted analytes was not less than 77%, calculated at three quality control levels. The proposed method showed a suitable lower level of quantification value of 0.50 µg ml-1 for both analytes, which is far lower than the expected C max, which permits the use of this method for pharmacokinetic studies. The proposed method proved to be useful for the evaluation of this combination in both human plasma and pharmaceutical formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed K. Kammoun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80260, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Alaa Khedr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80260, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahdab N. Khayyat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80260, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Maha A. Hegazy
- Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, 11562 Cairo, Egypt
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Ates HC, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Cass AEG, Urban GA, Dincer C. On-Site Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 38:1262-1277. [PMID: 33058758 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent technological advances have stimulated efforts to bring personalized medicine into practice. Yet, traditional application fields like therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) have remained rather under-appreciated. Owing to clear dose-response relationships, TDM could improve patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs. While chromatography-based routine practices are restricted due to high costs and turnaround times, biosensors overcome these limitations by offering on-site analysis. Nevertheless, sensor-based approaches have yet to break through for clinical TDM applications, due to the gap between scientific and clinical communities. We provide a critical overview of current TDM practices, followed by a TDM guideline to establish a common ground across disciplines. Finally, we discuss how the translation of sensor systems for TDM can be facilitated, by highlighting the challenges and opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ceren Ates
- Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies - FIT, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany; Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK, Laboratory for Sensors, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jason A Roberts
- Centre of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, 4072, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, 4029, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Pharmacy, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, 4029, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Translational Anti-infective Pharmacodynamics, School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, 4102, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Division of Anaesthesiology Critical Care Emergency and Pain Medicine, University of Montpellier, Nîmes University Hospital, 34090, Nîmes, France
| | - Jeffrey Lipman
- Centre of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, 4072, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, 4029, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Division of Anaesthesiology Critical Care Emergency and Pain Medicine, University of Montpellier, Nîmes University Hospital, 34090, Nîmes, France
| | - Anthony E G Cass
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, London, UK
| | - Gerald A Urban
- Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies - FIT, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Materials Research Centre - FMF, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Can Dincer
- Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies - FIT, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany; Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK, Laboratory for Sensors, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany. @imtek.de
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