Enhancement of rice vinegar production by modified semi-continuous culture based on analysis of enzymatic kinetic

Genomic Plasticity of Acid-Tolerant Phenotypic Evolution in Acetobacter pasteurianus

Acetic acid bacteria have a remarkable capacity to cope with elevated concentrations of cytotoxic acetic acid in their fermentation environment. In particular, the high-level acetate tolerance of Acetobacter pasteurianus that occurs in vinegar industrial settings must be constantly selected for. However, the improved acetic acid tolerance is rapidly lost without a selection pressure. To understand genetic and molecular biology of this acquired acetic acid tolerance in A. pasteurianus, we evolved three strains A. pasteurianus CICIM B7003, CICIM B7003-02, and ATCC 33,445 over 960 generations (4 months) in two initial acetic acids of 20 g·L-1 and 30 g·L-1, respectively. An acetic acid-adapted strain M20 with significantly improved specific growth rate of 0.159 h-1 and acid productivity of 1.61 g·L-1·h-1 was obtained. Comparative genome analysis of six evolved strains revealed that the genetic variations of adaptation were mainly focused on lactate metabolism, membrane proteins, transcriptional regulators, transposases, replication, and repair system. Among of these, lactate dehydrogenase, acetolactate synthase, glycosyltransferase, ABC transporter ATP-binding protein, two-component regulatory systems, the type II toxin-antitoxin system (RelE/RelB/StbE), exodeoxyribonuclease III, type I restriction endonuclease, tRNA-uridine 2-sulfurtransferase, and transposase might collaboratively contribute to the improved acetic acid tolerance in A. pasteurianus strains. The balance between repair factors and transposition variations might be the basis for genomic plasticity of A. pasteurianus strains, allowing the survival of populations and their offspring in acetic acid stress fluctuations. These observations provide important insights into the nature of acquired acetic acid tolerance phenotype and lay a foundation for future genetic manipulation of these strains.

Classification of acetic acid bacteria and their acid resistant mechanism

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are obligate aerobic Gram-negative bacteria that are commonly used in vinegar fermentation because of their strong capacity for ethanol oxidation and acetic acid synthesis as well as their acid resistance. However, low biomass and low production rate due to acid stress are still major challenges that must be overcome in industrial processes. Although acid resistance in AAB is important to the production of high acidity vinegar, the acid resistance mechanisms of AAB have yet to be fully elucidated. In this study, we discuss the classification of AAB species and their metabolic processes and review potential acid resistance factors and acid resistance mechanisms in various strains. In addition, we analyze the quorum sensing systems of Komagataeibacter and Gluconacetobacter to provide new ideas for investigation of acid resistance mechanisms in AAB in the form of signaling pathways. The results presented herein will serve as an important reference for selective breeding of high acid resistance AAB and optimization of acetic acid fermentation processes.

Fine-tuning ethanol oxidation pathway enzymes and cofactor PQQ coordinates the conflict between fitness and acetic acid production by Acetobacter pasteurianus

The very high concentrations required for industrial production of free acetic acid create toxicity and low pH values, which usually conflict with the host cell growth, leading to a poor productivity. Achieving a balance between cell fitness and product synthesis is the key challenge to improving acetic acid production efficiency in metabolic engineering. Here, we show that the synergistic regulation of alcohol/aldehyde dehydrogenase expression and cofactor PQQ level could not only efficiently relieve conflict between increased acetic acid production and compromised cell fitness, but also greatly enhance acetic acid tolerance of Acetobacter pasteurianus to a high initial concentration (3% v/v) of acetic acid. Combinatorial expression of adhA and pqqABCDE greatly shortens the duration of starting‐up process from 116 to 99 h, leading to a yield of 69 g l^‐1 acetic acid in semi‐continuous fermentation. As a final result, average acetic acid productivity has been raised to 0.99 g l^‐1 h^‐1, which was 32% higher than the parental A. pasteurianus. This study is of great significance for decreasing cost of semi‐continuous fermentation for producing high‐strength acetic acid industrially. We envisioned that this strategy will be useful for production of many other desired organic acids, especially those involving cofactor reactions.

Knowledge Domain and Emerging Trends in Vinegar Research: A Bibliometric Review of the Literature from WoSCC

Vinegar is one of the most widely used acidic condiments. In recent decades, rapid advances have been made in the area of vinegar research, and the intellectual structure pertaining to this domain has significantly evolved. Thus, it is important that scientists keep abreast of associated developments to ensure an appropriate understanding of this field. To facilitate this current study, a bibliometric analysis method was adopted to visualize the knowledge map of vinegar research based on literature data retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database. In total, 883 original research and review articles from between 1998 and 2019 with 19,663 references were analyzed by CiteSpace. Both a macroscopical sketch and microscopical characterization of the whole knowledge domain were realized. According to the research contents, the main themes that underlie vinegar research can be divided into six categories, that is, microorganisms, substances, health functions, production technologies, adjuvant medicines, and vinegar residues. In addition to the latter analysis, emerging trends and future research foci were predicted. Finally, the evolutionary stage of vinegar research was discerned according to Shneider's four-stage theory. This review will help scientists to discern the dynamic evolution of vinegar research, as well as highlight areas for future research.

A highly efficient step-wise biotransformation strategy for direct conversion of phytosterol to boldenone

Collaborative microbial communities are ubiquitous in nature and exhibit appealing functions for enhanced production of natural products, which provides new possibility for biotechnology development. In this study, we bridged Mycobacterium neoaurum with Pichia pastoris to establish a step-wise biotransformation strategy for efficient biosynthesis of boldenone (BD) from phytosterol (PS). Firstly, the producing strains were rationally designed with overexpression of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase (KsdD) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17βHSD) in M. neoaurum and P. pastoris, respectively. Then, to shorten the total biotransformation process and provide reducing power, semi-batch fermentation strategy and glucose supplementation strategy were introduced at side-chain degradation stage and carbonyl reduction stage, respectively. Under the optimal transformation conditions, the productivity of BD was increased from 10% to 76% and the total biotransformation process was shortened by 41.7%, which is the shortest among the ever reported. Our results demonstrated an excellent biological strategy for production of many other valuable microbial products from bioresources.

Production of vinegar from purple sweet potato in a liquid fermentation process and investigation of its antioxidant activity

Acetobacter pasteurianus JST-S was screened from solid fermented grains of vinegar in China, identified by molecular analysis, and used for the production of purple sweet potato vinegar using purple sweet potato as the substrate. By orthogonal experiment, maximum total acid concentration (4.26% [v/v]) was achieved under optimized conditions as follows: fermentation time, 3.5 days; ethanol content, 9% v/v; and inoculum size, 8% v/v. During the production of purple potato vinegar, the anthocyanin concentration decreased from 652.07 to 301.73 μg/mL. The antioxidant activity of products, including diphenyl-picryl hydrazide radical-scavenging capacity (above 60%), reducing power (above 0.47), and hydroxyl radical-scavenging capacity (above 46%), showed positive linear regression (P < 0.01), which could be related with the changes in anthocyanin concentration and antioxidant activities at different stages of vinegar fermentation. The acetic acid and other non-phenolic antioxidants in purple sweet potato vinegar may have contributed to the antioxidant activities. Results of these studies may provide a reference for the industrial production of vinegar by liquid fermentation of purple sweet potato.