1
|
Taguchi T, Lopez MJ. An overview of de novo bone generation in animal models. J Orthop Res 2021; 39:7-21. [PMID: 32910496 PMCID: PMC7820991 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Some of the earliest success in de novo tissue generation was in bone tissue, and advances, facilitated by the use of endogenous and exogenous progenitor cells, continue unabated. The concept of one health promotes shared discoveries among medical disciplines to overcome health challenges that afflict numerous species. Carefully selected animal models are vital to development and translation of targeted therapies that improve the health and well-being of humans and animals alike. While inherent differences among species limit direct translation of scientific knowledge between them, rapid progress in ex vivo and in vivo de novo tissue generation is propelling revolutionary innovation to reality among all musculoskeletal specialties. This review contains a comparison of bone deposition among species and descriptions of animal models of bone restoration designed to replicate a multitude of bone injuries and pathology, including impaired osteogenic capacity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Taguchi
- Laboratory for Equine and Comparative Orthopedic Research, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary MedicineLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
| | - Mandi J. Lopez
- Laboratory for Equine and Comparative Orthopedic Research, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary MedicineLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Reiter AJ, Kivitz GJ, Castile RM, Cannon PC, Lakes EH, Jacobs BY, Allen KD, Chamberlain AM, Lake SP. Functional Measures of Grip Strength and Gait Remain Altered Long-term in a Rat Model of Post-traumatic Elbow Contracture. J Biomech Eng 2019; 141:2730666. [PMID: 30958506 PMCID: PMC6611348 DOI: 10.1115/1.4043433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic joint contracture (PTJC) is a debilitating condition, particularly in the elbow. Previously, we established an animal model of elbow PTJC quantifying passive post-mortem joint mechanics and histological changes temporally. These results showed persistent motion loss similar to what is experienced in humans. Functional assessment of PTJC in our model was not previously considered; however, these measures would provide a clinically relevant measure and would further validate our model by demonstrating persistently altered joint function. To this end, a custom bilateral grip strength device was developed, and a recently established open-source gait analysis system was used to quantify forelimb function in our unilateral injury model. In vivo joint function was shown to be altered long-term and never fully recover. Specifically, forelimb strength in the injured limbs showed persistent deficits at all time points; additionally, gait patterns remained imbalanced and asymmetric throughout the study (although a few gait parameters did return to near normal levels). A quantitative understanding of these longitudinal, functional disabilities further strengthens the clinical relevance of our rat PTJC model enabling assessment of the effectiveness of future interventions aimed at reducing or preventing PTJC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alex J. Reiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Materials Science,
Washington University in St. Louis,
St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Griffin J. Kivitz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Materials Science,
Washington University in St. Louis,
St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Ryan M. Castile
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Materials Science,
Washington University in St. Louis,
St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Paul C. Cannon
- Seed Production Innovation,
Bayer Crop Science,
St. Louis, MO 63146
| | - Emily H. Lakes
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department
of Biomedical Engineering,
University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Brittany Y. Jacobs
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department
of Biomedical Engineering,
University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Kyle D. Allen
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department
of Biomedical Engineering,
University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Aaron M. Chamberlain
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery,
Washington University in St. Louis,
St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Spencer P. Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineeringand Materials Science,
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Washington University in St. Louis,
St. Louis, MO 63130
e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Foster AD. The impact of bipedal mechanical loading history on longitudinal long bone growth. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211692. [PMID: 30730948 PMCID: PMC6366785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Longitudinal bone growth is accomplished through a process where proliferating chondrocytes produce cartilage in the growth plate, which ultimately ossifies. Environmental influences, like mechanical loading, can moderate the growth of this cartilage, which can alter bone length. However, little is known about how specific behaviors like bipedalism, which is characterized by a shift in body mass (mechanical load), to the lower limbs, may impact bone growth. This study uses an experimental approach to induce bipedal behaviors in a rodent model (Rattus norvegicus) over a 12-week period using a treadmill-mounted harness system to test how rat hindlimbs respond to the following loading conditions: 1) fully loaded bipedal walking, 2) partially loaded bipedal walking, 3) standing, 4) quadrupedal walking, and 5) no exercise control. These experimental conditions test whether mechanical loading from 1) locomotor or postural behaviors, and 2) a change in the magnitude of load can moderate longitudinal bone growth in the femur and tibia, relative to controls. The results demonstrate that fully loaded bipedal walking and bipedal standing groups showed significant differences in the percentage change in length for the tibia and femur. When comparing the change from baseline, which control for body mass, all bipedal groups showed significant differences in tibia length compared to control groups. However, there were no absolute differences in bone length, which suggests that mechanical loads from bipedal behaviors may instead be moderating changes in growth velocity. Implications for the relationship between bipedal behaviors and longitudinal bone growth are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam D. Foster
- Department of Anatomy, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Campbell University, Buies Creek, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Matias Júnior I, Medeiros P, de Freita RL, Vicente-César H, Ferreira Junior JR, Machado HR, Menezes-Reis R. Effective Parameters for Gait Analysis in Experimental Models for Evaluating Peripheral Nerve Injuries in Rats. Neurospine 2019; 16:305-316. [PMID: 30653907 PMCID: PMC6603843 DOI: 10.14245/ns.1836080.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve is a peripheral nerve injury widely used to induce mononeuropathy. This study used machine learning methods to identify the best gait analysis parameters for evaluating peripheral nerve injuries.
Methods Twenty-eight male Wistar rats (weighing 270±10 g), were used in the present study and divided into the following 4 groups: CCI with 4 ligatures around the sciatic nerve (CCI-4L; n=7), a modified CCI model with 1 ligature (CCI-1L; n=7), a sham group (n=7), and a healthy control group (n=7). All rats underwent gait analysis 7 and 28 days postinjury. The data were evaluated using Kinovea and WeKa software (machine learning and neural networks).
Results In the machine learning analysis of the experimental groups, the pre-swing (PS) angle showed the highest ranking in all 3 analyses (sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristics curve using the Naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbors, radial basis function classifiers). Initial contact (IC), step length, and stride length also performed well. Between 7 and 28 days after injury, there was an increase in the total course time, step length, stride length, stride speed, and IC, and a reduction in PS and IC-PS. Statistically significant differences were found between the control group and experimental groups for all parameters except speed. Interactions between time after injury and nerve injury type were only observed for IC, PS, and IC-PS.
Conclusion PS angle of the ankle was the best gait parameter for differentiating nonlesions from nerve injuries and different levels of injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivair Matias Júnior
- Department of Surgery and Anatomy, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Priscila Medeiros
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Neuroscience and Behavioural Sciences, Neurology Division, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Renato Leonardo de Freita
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Biomedical Sciences Institute, Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL-MG), Str. Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Hilton Vicente-César
- Center of Imaging Sciences and Medical Physics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - José Raniery Ferreira Junior
- Center of Imaging Sciences and Medical Physics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Hélio Rubens Machado
- Department of Surgery and Anatomy, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Rafael Menezes-Reis
- Center of Imaging Sciences and Medical Physics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Biomechanics, Medicine, and Rehabilitation of Locomotor Apparatus, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Diogo CC, da Costa LM, Pereira JE, Filipe V, Couto PA, Geuna S, Armada-da-Silva PA, Maurício AC, Varejão ASP. Kinematic and kinetic gait analysis to evaluate functional recovery in thoracic spinal cord injured rats. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 98:18-28. [PMID: 30611796 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The recovery of walking function following spinal cord injury (SCI) is of major importance to patients and clinicians. In experimental SCI studies, a rat model is widely used to assess walking function, following thoracic spinal cord lesion. In an effort to provide a resource which investigators can refer to when seeking the most appropriate functional assay, the authors have compiled and categorized the behavioral assessments used to measure the deficits and recovery of the gait in thoracic SCI rats. These categories include kinematic and kinetic measurements. Within this categorization, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type of measurement. The present review includes the type of outcome data that they produce, the technical difficulty and the time required to potentially train the animals to perform them, and the need for expensive or highly specialized equipment. The use of multiple kinematic and kinetic parameters is recommended to identify subtle deficits and processes involved in the compensatory mechanisms of walking function after experimental thoracic SCI in rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camila Cardoso Diogo
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Luís Maltez da Costa
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - José Eduardo Pereira
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Vítor Filipe
- Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; INESC TEC, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200 - 465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Alexandre Couto
- Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; CITAB, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Stefano Geuna
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Paulo A Armada-da-Silva
- Faculdade de Motricidade Humana (FMH), Universidade de Lisboa (ULisboa), Estrada da Costa, 1499-002, Dafundo, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; CIPER-FMH: Centro Interdisciplinar de Estudo de Performance Humana, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana (FMH), Universidade de Lisboa (ULisboa), Estrada da Costa, 1499-002, Cruz Quebrada - Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Ana Colette Maurício
- Department of Veterinary Clinics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Animal Science and Study Centre (CECA), Institute of Sciences, Technologies and Agroenvironment of the University of Porto (ICETA), Rua D. Manuel II, Apartado 55142, 4051-401, Porto, Portugal
| | - Artur S P Varejão
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Russo GA, Marsh D, Foster AD. Response of the Axial Skeleton to Bipedal Loading Behaviors in an Experimental Animal Model. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 303:150-166. [PMID: 30365241 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Many derived aspects of modern human axial skeletal morphology reflect our reliance on obligate bipedal locomotion. Insight into the adaptive significance of features, particularly in the spine, has been gained through experimental studies that induce bipedal standing or walking in quadrupedal mammals. Using an experimental animal model (Rattus norvegicus), the present study builds on earlier work by incorporating additional metrics of the cranium, employing quantitative methods established in the paleoanthropological literature, and exploring how variation in mechanical loading regimes impacts axial anatomy. Rats were assigned to one of five experimental groups, including "fully loaded bipedal walking," "partially loaded bipedal walking," "standing bipedally," "quadrupedal walking," and "no exercise control," and engaged in the behavior over 12-weeks. From μCT data obtained at the beginning and end of the experiment, we measured foramen magnum position and orientation, lumbar vertebral body wedging, cranial surface area of the lumbar and first sacral vertebral bodies, and sacral mediolateral width. Results demonstrate that bipedal rodents generally have more anteriorly positioned foramina magna, more dorsally wedged lumbar vertebrae, greater articular surface areas of lumbar and first sacral vertebral bodies, and sacra that exhibit greater mediolateral widths, compared to quadrupedal rodents. We further document variation among bipedal loading behavior groups (e.g., bipedal standing vs. walking). Our experimental animal model reveals how loading behaviors and adaptations may be specifically linked, and implicates a potential role for developmental plasticity in the evolutionary acquisition of bipedal adaptations in the hominin lineage. Anat Rec, 2018. © 2018 American Association for Anatomy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Russo
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - D'arcy Marsh
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Adam D Foster
- Department of Anatomy, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Campbell University, Buies Creek, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Use of the parallel beam task for skilled walking in a rat model of cerebral ischemia: A qualitative approach. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
8
|
Teaching Adult Rats Spinalized as Neonates to Walk Using Trunk Robotic Rehabilitation: Elements of Success, Failure, and Dependence. J Neurosci 2017; 36:8341-55. [PMID: 27511008 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2435-14.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Robot therapy promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) in animal and clinical studies. Trunk actions are important in adult rats spinalized as neonates (NTX rats) that walk autonomously. Quadrupedal robot rehabilitation was tested using an implanted orthosis at the pelvis. Trunk cortical reorganization follows such rehabilitation. Here, we test the functional outcomes of such training. Robot impedance control at the pelvis allowed hindlimb, trunk, and forelimb mechanical interactions. Rats gradually increased weight support. Rats showed significant improvement in hindlimb stepping ability, quadrupedal weight support, and all measures examined. Function in NTX rats both before and after training showed bimodal distributions, with "poor" and "high weight support" groupings. A total of 35% of rats initially classified as "poor" were able to increase their weight-supported step measures to a level considered "high weight support" after robot training, thus moving between weight support groups. Recovered function in these rats persisted on treadmill with the robot both actuated and nonactuated, but returned to pretraining levels if they were completely disconnected from the robot. Locomotor recovery in robot rehabilitation of NTX rats thus likely included context dependence and/or incorporation of models of robot mechanics that became essential parts of their learned strategy. Such learned dependence is likely a hurdle to autonomy to be overcome for many robot locomotor therapies. Notwithstanding these limitations, trunk-based quadrupedal robot rehabilitation helped the rats to visit mechanical states they would never have achieved alone, to learn novel coordinations, and to achieve major improvements in locomotor function. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neonatal spinal transected rats without any weight support can be taught weight support as adults by using robot rehabilitation at trunk. No adult control rats with neonatal spinal transections spontaneously achieve similar changes. The robot rehabilitation system can be inactivated and the skills that were learned persist. Responding rats cannot be detached from the robot altogether, a dependence develops in the skill learned. From data and analysis here, the likelihood of such rats to respond to the robot therapy can also now be predicted. These results are all novel. Understanding trunk roles in voluntary and spinal reflex integration after spinal cord injury and in recovery of function are broadly significant for basic and clinical understanding of motor function.
Collapse
|
9
|
Saunders NR, Dziegielewska KM, Whish SC, Hinds LA, Wheaton BJ, Huang Y, Henry S, Habgood MD. A bipedal mammalian model for spinal cord injury research: The tammar wallaby. F1000Res 2017; 6:921. [PMID: 28721206 PMCID: PMC5497825 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.11712.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Most animal studies of spinal cord injury are conducted in quadrupeds, usually rodents. It is unclear to what extent functional results from such studies can be translated to bipedal species such as humans because bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion involve very different patterns of spinal control of muscle coordination. Bipedalism requires upright trunk stability and coordinated postural muscle control; it has been suggested that peripheral sensory input is less important in humans than quadrupeds for recovery of locomotion following spinal injury. Methods: We used an Australian macropod marsupial, the tammar wallaby
(Macropuseugenii), because tammars exhibit an upright trunk posture, human-like alternating hindlimb movement when swimming and bipedal over-ground locomotion. Regulation of their muscle movements is more similar to humans than quadrupeds. At different postnatal (P) days (P7–60) tammars received a complete mid-thoracic spinal cord transection. Morphological repair, as well as functional use of hind limbs, was studied up to the time of their pouch exit. Results: Growth of axons across the lesion restored supraspinal innervation in animals injured up to 3 weeks of age but not in animals injured after 6 weeks of age. At initial pouch exit (P180), the young injured at P7-21 were able to hop on their hind limbs similar to age-matched controls and to swim albeit with a different stroke. Those animals injured at P40-45 appeared to be incapable of normal use of hind limbs even while still in the pouch. Conclusions: Data indicate that the characteristic over-ground locomotion of tammars provides a model in which regrowth of supraspinal connections across the site of injury can be studied in a bipedal animal. Forelimb weight-bearing motion and peripheral sensory input appear not to compensate for lack of hindlimb control, as occurs in quadrupeds. Tammars may be a more appropriate model for studies of therapeutic interventions relevant to humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Norman R Saunders
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Katarzyna M Dziegielewska
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Sophie C Whish
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Lyn A Hinds
- Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Benjamin J Wheaton
- Centre for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Yifan Huang
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Steve Henry
- Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Mark D Habgood
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Pardes AM, Freedman BR, Soslowsky LJ. Ground reaction forces are more sensitive gait measures than temporal parameters in rodents following rotator cuff injury. J Biomech 2015; 49:376-81. [PMID: 26768230 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Gait analysis is a quantitative, non-invasive technique that can be used to investigate functional changes in animal models of musculoskeletal disease. Changes in ground reaction forces following injury have been observed that coincide with differences in tissue mechanical and histological properties during healing. However, measurement of these kinetic gait parameters can be laborious compared to the simpler and less time-consuming analysis of temporal gait parameters alone. We compared the sensitivity of temporal and kinetic gait parameters in detecting functional changes following rotator cuff injury in rats. Although these parameters were strongly correlated, temporal measures were unable to detect greater than 50% of the functional gait differences between injured and uninjured animals identified simultaneously by ground reaction forces. Regression analysis was used to predict ground reaction forces from temporal parameters. This model improved the ability of temporal parameters to identify known functional changes, but only when these differences were large in magnitude (i.e., between injured vs. uninjured animals, but not between different post-operative treatments). The results of this study suggest that ground reaction forces are more sensitive measures of limb/joint function than temporal parameters following rotator cuff injury in rats. Therefore, although gait analysis systems without force plates are typically efficient and easy to use, they may be most appropriate for use when major functional changes are expected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Pardes
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - B R Freedman
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - L J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Trunk robot rehabilitation training with active stepping reorganizes and enriches trunk motor cortex representations in spinal transected rats. J Neurosci 2015; 35:7174-89. [PMID: 25948267 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4366-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trunk motor control is crucial for postural stability and propulsion after low thoracic spinal cord injury (SCI) in animals and humans. Robotic rehabilitation aimed at trunk shows promise in SCI animal models and patients. However, little is known about the effect of SCI and robot rehabilitation of trunk on cortical motor representations. We previously showed reorganization of trunk motor cortex after adult SCI. Non-stepping training also exacerbated some SCI-driven plastic changes. Here we examine effects of robot rehabilitation that promotes recovery of hindlimb weight support functions on trunk motor cortex representations. Adult rats spinal transected as neonates (NTX rats) at the T9/10 level significantly improve function with our robot rehabilitation paradigm, whereas treadmill-only trained do not. We used intracortical microstimulation to map motor cortex in two NTX groups: (1) treadmill trained (control group); and (2) robot-assisted treadmill trained (improved function group). We found significant robot rehabilitation-driven changes in motor cortex: (1) caudal trunk motor areas expanded; (2) trunk coactivation at cortex sites increased; (3) richness of trunk cortex motor representations, as examined by cumulative entropy and mutual information for different trunk representations, increased; (4) trunk motor representations in the cortex moved toward more normal topography; and (5) trunk and forelimb motor representations that SCI-driven plasticity and compensations had caused to overlap were segregated. We conclude that effective robot rehabilitation training induces significant reorganization of trunk motor cortex and partially reverses some plastic changes that may be adaptive in non-stepping paraplegia after SCI.
Collapse
|
12
|
Nessler JA, Moustafa-Bayoumi M, Soto D, Duhon J, Schmitt R. Assessment of hindlimb locomotor strength in spinal cord transected rats through animal-robot contact force. J Biomech Eng 2011; 133:121007. [PMID: 22206424 DOI: 10.1115/1.4005408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Robotic locomotor training devices have gained popularity in recent years, yet little has been reported regarding contact forces experienced by the subject performing automated locomotor training, particularly in animal models of neurological injury. The purpose of this study was to develop a means for acquiring contact forces between a robotic device and a rodent model of spinal cord injury through instrumentation of a robotic gait training device (the rat stepper) with miniature force/torque sensors. Sensors were placed at each interface between the robot arm and animal's hindlimb and underneath the stepping surface of both hindpaws (four sensors total). Twenty four female, Sprague-Dawley rats received mid-thoracic spinal cord transections as neonates and were included in the study. Of these 24 animals, training began for 18 animals at 21 days of age and continued for four weeks at five min/day, five days/week. The remaining six animals were untrained. Animal-robot contact forces were acquired for trained animals weekly and untrained animals every two weeks while stepping in the robotic device with both 60 and 90% of their body weight supported (BWS). Animals that received training significantly increased the number of weight supported steps over the four week training period. Analysis of raw contact forces revealed significant increases in forward swing and ground reaction forces during this time, and multiple aspects of animal-robot contact forces were significantly correlated with weight bearing stepping. However, when contact forces were normalized to animal body weight, these increasing trends were no longer present. Comparison of trained and untrained animals revealed significant differences in normalized ground reaction forces (both horizontal and vertical) and normalized forward swing force. Finally, both forward swing and ground reaction forces were significantly reduced at 90% BWS when compared to the 60% condition. These results suggest that measurement of animal-robot contact forces using the instrumented rat stepper can provide a sensitive and reliable measure of hindlimb locomotor strength and control of flexor and extensor muscle activity in neurologically impaired animals. Additionally, these measures may be useful as a means to quantify training intensity or dose-related functional outcomes of automated training.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeff A Nessler
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Marcos, CA 92096, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kao T, Shumsky JS, Knudsen EB, Murray M, Moxon KA. Functional role of exercise-induced cortical organization of sensorimotor cortex after spinal transection. J Neurophysiol 2011; 106:2662-74. [PMID: 21865438 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01017.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord transection silences neuronal activity in the deafferented cortex to cutaneous stimulation of the body and untreated animals show no improvement in functional outcome (weight-supported stepping) with time after lesion. However, adult rats spinalized since neonates that receive exercise therapy exhibit greater functional recovery and exhibit more cortical reorganization. This suggests that the change in the somatotopic organization of the cortex may be functionally relevant. To address this issue, we chronically implanted arrays of microwire electrodes into the infragranular layers of the hindlimb somatosensory cortex of adult rats neonatally transected at T8/T9 that received exercise training (spinalized rats) and of normal adult rats. Multiple, single neuron activity was recorded during passive sensory stimulation, when the animals were anesthetized, and during active sensorimotor stimulation during treadmill-induced locomotion when the animal was awake and free to move. Our results demonstrate that cortical neurons recorded from the spinalized rats that received exercise 1) had higher spontaneous firing rates, 2) were more likely to respond to both sensory and sensorimotor stimulations of the forelimbs, and also 3) responded with more spikes per stimulus than those recorded from normal rats, suggesting expansion of the forelimb map into the hindlimb map. During treadmill locomotion the activity of neurons recorded from neonatally spinalized rats was greater during weight-supported steps on the treadmill compared with the neuronal activity during nonweight supported steps. We hypothesize that this increased activity is related to the ability of the animal to take weight supported steps and that, therefore, these changes in cortical organization after spinal cord injury are relevant for functional recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Kao
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Spinal Wistar Hannover rats trained to step bipedally on a treadmill with manual assistance of the hindlimbs have been shown to improve their stepping ability. Given the improvement in motor performance with practice and the ability of the spinal cord circuitry to learn to step more effectively when the mode of training allows variability, we examined why this intrinsic variability is an important factor. Intramuscular EMG electrodes were implanted to monitor and compare the patterns of activation of flexor (tibialis anterior) and extensor (soleus) muscles associated with a fixed-trajectory and assist-as-needed (AAN) step training paradigms in rats after a complete midthoracic (T8-T9) spinal cord transection. Both methods involved a robotic arm attached to each ankle of the rat to provide guidance during stepping. The fixed trajectory allowed little variance between steps, and the AAN provided guidance only when the ankle deviated a specified distance from the programmed trajectory. We hypothesized that an AAN paradigm would impose fewer disruptions of the control strategies intrinsic to the spinal locomotor circuitry compared with a fixed trajectory. Intrathecal injections of quipazine were given to each rat to facilitate stepping. Analysis confirmed that there were more corrections within a fixed-trajectory step cycle and consequently there was less coactivation of agonist and antagonist muscles during the AAN paradigm. These data suggest that some critical level of variation in the specific circuitry activated and the resulting kinematics reflect a fundamental feature of the neural control mechanisms even in a highly repetitive motor task.
Collapse
|
15
|
Giszter SF, Hockensmith G, Ramakrishnan A, Udoekwere UI. How spinalized rats can walk: biomechanics, cortex, and hindlimb muscle scaling--implications for rehabilitation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1198:279-93. [PMID: 20536943 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05534.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Neonatal spinalized (NST) rats can achieve autonomous weight-supported locomotion never seen after adult injury. Mechanisms that support function in NST rats include increased importance of cortical trunk control and altered biomechanical control strategies for stance and locomotion. Hindlimbs are isolated from perturbations in quiet stance and act in opposition to forelimbs in locomotion in NST rats. Control of roll and yaw of the hindlimbs is crucial in their locomotion. The biomechanics of the hind limbs of NST rats are also likely crucial. We present new data showing the whole leg musculature scales proportional to normal rat musculature in NST rats, regardless of function. This scaling is a prerequisite for the NST rats to most effectively use pattern generation mechanisms and motor patterns that are similar to those present in intact rats. Pattern generation may be built into the lumbar spinal cord by evolution and matched to the limb biomechanics, so preserved muscle scaling may be essential to the NST function observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon F Giszter
- Neurobiology and Anatomy, School of Bioengineering, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Transient decreases in forelimb gait and ground reaction forces following rotator cuff injury and repair in a rat model. J Biomech 2010; 43:778-82. [PMID: 19931082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Due to inadequate healing, surgical repairs of torn rotator cuff tendons often fail, limiting the recovery of upper extremity function. The rat is frequently used to study rotator cuff healing; however, there are few systems capable of quantifying forelimb function necessary to interpret the clinical significance of tissue level healing. We constructed a device to capture images, ground reaction forces and torques, as animals ambulated in a confined walkway, and used it to evaluate forelimb function in uninjured control and surgically injured/repaired animals. Ambulatory data were recorded before (D-1), and 3, 7, 14, 28 and 56 days after surgery. Speed as well as step width and length were determined by analyzing ventral images, and ground reaction forces were normalized to body weight. Speed averaged 22+/-6 cm/s and was not affected by repair or time. Step width and length of uninjured animals compared well to values measured with our previous system. Forelimbs were used primarily for braking (-1.6+/-1.5% vs +2.5+/-0.6%), bore less weight than hind limbs (49+/-5% vs 58+/-4%), and showed no differences between sides (49+/-5% vs 46+/-5%) for uninjured control animals. Step length and ground reaction forces of the repaired animals were significantly less than control initially (days 3, 7 and 14 post-surgery), but not by day 28. Our new device provided uninjured ambulatory data consistent with our previous system and available literature, and measured reductions in forelimb function consistent with the deficit expected by our surgical model.
Collapse
|
17
|
Giszter SF, Hart CB, Silfies SP. Spinal cord modularity: evolution, development, and optimization and the possible relevance to low back pain in man. Exp Brain Res 2009; 200:283-306. [PMID: 19838690 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-2016-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2009] [Accepted: 09/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon F Giszter
- Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Walking is adaptable because the timing of movements of individual legs can be varied while maintaining leg coordination. Recent work in stick insects shows that leg coordination set by interactions of pattern generating circuits can be overridden by sensory feedback.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sasha N Zill
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Song W, Ramakrishnan A, Udoekwere UI, Giszter SF. Multiple types of movement-related information encoded in hindlimb/trunk cortex in rats and potentially available for brain-machine interface controls. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2009; 56:2712-6. [PMID: 19605313 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2009.2026284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Brain-machine interface (BMI) systems hold the potential to return lost functions to patients with motor disorders. To date, most efforts in BMI have concentrated on decoding neural activity from forearm areas of cortex to operate a robotic arm or perform other manipulation tasks. Efforts have neglected the locomotion functions of hindlimb/trunk cortex. However, the role of cortex in hindlimb locomotion of intact rats, which are often model systems for BMI testing, is usually considered to be small. Thus, the quality of representations of locomotion available in this area was uncertain. We designed a new rodent BMI system, and tested decoding of the kinematics of trunk and hindlimbs during locomotion using linear regression. Recordings were made from the motor cortex of the hindlimb/trunk area in rats using arrays of six tetrodes (24 channels total). We found that multiple movement-related variables could be decoded simultaneously during locomotion, ranging from the proximal robot/pelvis attachment point, and the distal toe position, through hindlimb joint angles and limb endpoint in a polar coordinate system. Remarkably, the best reconstructed motion parameters were the more proximal kinematics, which might relate to global task variables. The pelvis motion was significantly better reconstructed than any other motion features.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weiguo Song
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Zill SN, Keller BR, Duke ER. Sensory Signals of Unloading in One Leg Follow Stance Onset in Another Leg: Transfer of Load and Emergent Coordination in Cockroach Walking. J Neurophysiol 2009; 101:2297-304. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00056.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The transfer of load from one leg to another is an essential component in walking, but sense organs that signal this process have rarely been identified. We used high-speed digital imaging and neurophysiological recordings to characterize activities of tibial campaniform sensilla, receptors that detect forces via cuticular strains, in the middle legs of cockroaches during walking. Previous studies demonstrated that the distal tibial sensilla discharge when body load is suddenly decreased in freely standing animals. Sensory recordings during walking showed that distal receptors in the middle leg fired an intense burst near the end of the stance phase. We tested the hypothesis that initiation of distal firing resulted from the action of other legs entering stance. Analysis of leg movements in slow walking showed that sensory bursts in the middle leg closely followed stance onset of the ipsilateral hind leg while the ipsilateral front leg entered stance earlier in phase. Similar phases of leg movement were found in slow walking in experiments in which animals had no implanted recording wires. Those studies also demonstrated that the opposite middle leg entered stance earlier in phase. Measurements of leg positions in walking showed that the hind leg tarsus was placed closest to the middle leg, in keeping with a “targeting” strategy. Triggering of distal bursts in the middle leg by mechanical action of the hind leg could facilitate the onset of swing in the middle leg through local reflex effects and contribute to emergent coordination of leg movements in metachronal gaits.
Collapse
|
21
|
Giszter S, Davies MR, Ramakrishnan A, Udoekwere UI, Kargo WJ. Trunk sensorimotor cortex is essential for autonomous weight-supported locomotion in adult rats spinalized as P1/P2 neonates. J Neurophysiol 2008; 100:839-51. [PMID: 18509082 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00866.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike adult spinalized rats, approximately 20% of rats spinalized as postnatal day 1 or 2 (P1/P2) neonates achieve autonomous hindlimb weight support. Cortical representations of mid/low trunk occur only in such rats with high weight support. However, the importance of hindlimb/trunk motor cortex in function of spinalized rats remains unclear. We tested the importance of trunk sensorimotor cortex in their locomotion using lesions guided by cortical microstimulation in P1/P2 weight-supporting neonatal spinalized rats and controls. In four intact control rats, lesions of hindlimb/trunk cortex caused no treadmill deficits. All spinalized rats lesioned in trunk cortex (n = 16: 4 transplant, 6 transect, 6 transect + fibrin glue) lost an average of about 40% of their weight support. Intact trunk cortex was essential to their level of function. Lesion of trunk cortex substantially increased roll of the hindquarters, which correlated to diminished weight support, but other kinematic stepping parameters showed little change. Embryonic day 14 (E14) transplants support development of the trunk motor representations in their normal location. We tested the role of novel relay circuits arising from the grafts in such cortical representations in E14 transplants using the rats that received (noncellular) fibrin glue grafting at P1/P2 (8 allografts and 32 xenografts). Fibrin-repaired rats with autonomous weight support also had trunk cortical representations similar to those of E14 transplant rats. Thus acellular repair and intrinsic plasticity were sufficient to support the observed features. Our data show that effective cortical mechanisms for trunk control are essential for autonomous weight support in P1/P2 spinalized rats and these can be achieved by intrinsic plasticity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Giszter
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|