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Francino G, Álvarez J, Pastén-Hidalgo W, Moreno-Reyes P, Jiménez S, Herrera N, Moraga D. [Effects of postural control upon anti-saccade error rate in older people]. Rev Esp Geriatr Gerontol 2023; 58:101405. [PMID: 37666070 DOI: 10.1016/j.regg.2023.101405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The anti-saccadic (AS) error-rate is used to diagnose neurological disorders. The natural aging process could generate difficulty in carrying out parallel neural processes of conscious motor inhibition and eye movement. Therefore, if balance control is imposed on an elderly person in biped positions during an AS movement, an increase in the AS error-rate is expected. OBJECTIVE To study the effects of postural control on the AS error-rate in older people. METHODS An intra and intergroup comparison was made of AS error-rate in an experimental group of older people (PM) and another control group of young people (PJ). For this, blocks of AS and pro-saccadic movements (control) were used randomly in four different postures: (1)sitting (SENT), (2)standing normally (NORMAL), (3)feet together (REDUC), and (4)feet in line (TANDEM). RESULTS The PM group, compared to the PJ group, showed a progressive increase in the AS error-rate from the sitting position to all standing positions, with the maximum AS error-rate in more complex vertical postures. In contrast, the PJ group did not present significative variability of this AS error-rate in all positions. CONCLUSIONS It is confirmed that the aging process is associated with an increase in the AS error-rate. This study reveals for the first time a significant increase in the AS error-rate when control of body balance is required for PM, implying a decrease in the multiple processing capacity in PM for the execution of complex and parallel tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Francino
- Escuela de Kinesiología, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile
| | - Julio Álvarez
- Carrera de Kinesiología y Rehabilitación, Departamento de Kinesiología y Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
| | - Wilson Pastén-Hidalgo
- Departamento de Kinesiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó, Chile
| | - Paula Moreno-Reyes
- Departamento de Kinesiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó, Chile
| | - Sergio Jiménez
- Departamento de Kinesiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó, Chile
| | - Natalia Herrera
- Carrera de Enfermería, Departamento de Enfermería, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
| | - Daniel Moraga
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile.
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Zacharia A, Kaski D, Bouthour W, Dayal V, Bereau M, Mahlknecht P, Georgiev D, Péron J, Foltynie T, Zrinzo L, Jahanshahi M, Rothwell J, Limousin P. Effects of deep brain stimulation frequency on eye movements and cognitive control. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2023; 9:50. [PMID: 37002261 PMCID: PMC10066205 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-023-00470-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is an effective treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD). Varying the frequency DBS has differential effects on axial and distal limb functions, suggesting differing modulation of relevant pathways. The STN is also a critical node in oculomotor and associative networks, but the effect of stimulation frequency on these networks remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of 80 hz vs. 130 Hz frequency STN-DBS on eye movements and executive control. Twenty-one STN-DBS PD patients receiving 130 Hz vs. 80 Hz stimulation were compared to a healthy control group (n = 16). All participants were tested twice in a double-blind manner. We examined prosaccades (latency and gain) and antisaccades (latency of correct and incorrect antisaccades, error rate and gain of the correct antisaccades). Executive function was tested with the Stroop task. The motor condition was assessed using Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale part III. The antisaccadic error rate was higher in patients (p = 0.0113), more so in patients on 80 Hz compared to 130 Hz (p = 0.001) stimulation. The differences between patients and controls and between frequencies for all other eye-movements or cognitive measures were not statistically significant. We show that 80 Hz STN-DBS in PD reduces the ability to maintain stable fixation but does not alter inhibition, resulting in a higher antisaccade error rate presumably due to less efficient fixation, without altering the motor state. This provides a wider range of stimulation parameters that can reduce specific DBS-related effects without affecting motor outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Zacharia
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
- Department of Neurology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, Clinique Bernoise Montana, Crans-, Montana, Switzerland
- Service of Neurology, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Diego Kaski
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Walid Bouthour
- Department of Neurology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Viswas Dayal
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Matthieu Bereau
- Department of Neurology, Besançon University Hospital, Besançon, France
| | - Philipp Mahlknecht
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dejan Georgiev
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Centre, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Julie Péron
- Department of Neurology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Tom Foltynie
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Ludvic Zrinzo
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Marjan Jahanshahi
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - John Rothwell
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK.
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Yep R, Smorenburg ML, Riek HC, Calancie OG, Kirkpatrick RH, Perkins JE, Huang J, Coe BC, Brien DC, Munoz DP. Interleaved Pro/Anti-saccade Behavior Across the Lifespan. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:842549. [PMID: 35663573 PMCID: PMC9159803 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.842549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The capacity for inhibitory control is an important cognitive process that undergoes dynamic changes over the course of the lifespan. Robust characterization of this trajectory, considering age continuously and using flexible modeling techniques, is critical to advance our understanding of the neural mechanisms that differ in healthy aging and neurological disease. The interleaved pro/anti-saccade task (IPAST), in which pro- and anti-saccade trials are randomly interleaved within a block, provides a simple and sensitive means of assessing the neural circuitry underlying inhibitory control. We utilized IPAST data collected from a large cross-sectional cohort of normative participants (n = 604, 5-93 years of age), standardized pre-processing protocols, generalized additive modeling, and change point analysis to investigate the effect of age on saccade behavior and identify significant periods of change throughout the lifespan. Maturation of IPAST measures occurred throughout adolescence, while subsequent decline began as early as the mid-20s and continued into old age. Considering pro-saccade correct responses and anti-saccade direction errors made at express (short) and regular (long) latencies was crucial in differentiating developmental and aging processes. We additionally characterized the effect of age on voluntary override time, a novel measure describing the time at which voluntary processes begin to overcome automated processes on anti-saccade trials. Drawing on converging animal neurophysiology, human neuroimaging, and computational modeling literature, we propose potential frontal-parietal and frontal-striatal mechanisms that may mediate the behavioral changes revealed in our analysis. We liken the models presented here to "cognitive growth curves" which have important implications for improved detection of neurological disease states that emerge during vulnerable windows of developing and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Yep
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | | | - Heidi C. Riek
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Olivia G. Calancie
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Ryan H. Kirkpatrick
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Julia E. Perkins
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Jeff Huang
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Brian C. Coe
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Donald C. Brien
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Douglas P. Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Knox PC, Pasunuru N. Age-related alterations in inhibitory control investigated using the minimally delayed oculomotor response task. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8401. [PMID: 31942260 PMCID: PMC6955103 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Healthy, older adults are widely reported to experience cognitive decline, including impairments in inhibitory control. However, this general proposition has recently come under scrutiny because ageing effects are highly variable between individuals, are task dependent, and are sometimes not distinguished from general age-related slowing. We recently developed the minimally delayed oculomotor response (MDOR) task in which participants are presented with a simple visual target step, and instructed to saccade not to the target when it appears (a prosaccade response), but when it disappears (i.e. on target offset). Varying the target display duration (TDD) prevents offset timing being predictable from the time of target onset, and saccades prior to the offset are counted as errors. A comparison of MDOR task performance in a group of 22 older adults (mean age 62 years, range 50-72 years) with that in a group of 39 younger adults (22 years, range 19-27 years) demonstrated that MDOR latency was significantly increased in the older group by 34-68 ms depending on TDD. However, when MDOR latencies were corrected by subtracting the latency observed in a standard prosaccade task, the latency difference between groups was abolished. There was a larger latency modulation with TDD in the older group which was observed even when their generally longer latencies were taken into account. Error rates were significantly increased in the older group. An analysis of the timing distribution of errors demonstrated that most errors were failures to inhibit responses to target onsets. When error distributions were used to isolate clear inhibition failures from other types of error, the older group still exhibited significantly higher error rates as well as a higher residual error rate. Although MDOR latency in older participants may largely reflect a general slowing in the oculomotor system with age, both the latency modulation and error rate results are consistent with an age-related inhibitory control deficit. How this relates to performance on other inhibitory control tasks remains to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C. Knox
- Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Nikitha Pasunuru
- Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Playing Super Mario increases oculomotor inhibition and frontal eye field grey matter in older adults. Exp Brain Res 2018; 237:723-733. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5453-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Rosini F, Pretegiani E, Mignarri A, Optican LM, Serchi V, De Stefano N, Battaglini M, Monti L, Dotti MT, Federico A, Rufa A. The role of dentate nuclei in human oculomotor control: insights from cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. J Physiol 2017; 595:3607-3620. [PMID: 28168705 DOI: 10.1113/jp273670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS A cerebellar dentate nuclei (DN) contribution to volitional oculomotor control has recently been hypothesized but not fully understood. Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis (CTX) is a rare neurometabolic disease typically characterized by DN damage. In this study, we compared the ocular movement characteristics of two sets of CTX patients, with and without brain MRI evidence of DN involvement, with a set of healthy subjects. Our results suggest that DN participate in voluntary behaviour, such as the execution of antisaccades, and moreover are involved in controlling the precision of the ocular movement. The saccadic abnormalities related to DN involvement were independent of global and regional brain atrophy. Our study confirms the relevant role of DN in voluntary aspects of oculomotion and delineates specific saccadic abnormalities that could be used to detect the involvement of DN in other cerebellar disorders. ABSTRACT It is well known that the medial cerebellum controls saccadic speed and accuracy. In contrast, the role of the lateral cerebellum (cerebellar hemispheres and dentate nuclei, DN) is less well understood. Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis (CTX) is a lipid storage disorder due to mutations in CYP27A1, typically characterized by DN damage. CTX thus provides a unique opportunity to study DN in human oculomotor control. We analysed horizontal and vertical visually guided saccades and horizontal antisaccades of 19 CTX patients. Results were related to the presence/absence of DN involvement and compared with those of healthy subjects. To evaluate the contribution of other areas, abnormal saccadic parameters were compared with global and regional brain volumes. CTX patients executed normally accurate saccades with normal main sequence relationships, indicating that the brainstem and medial cerebellar structures were functionally spared. Patients with CTX executed more frequent multistep saccades and directional errors during the antisaccade task than controls. CTX patients with DN damage showed less precise saccades with longer latencies, and more frequent directional errors, usually not followed by corrections, than either controls or patients without DN involvement. These saccadic abnormalities related to DN involvement but were independent of global and regional brain atrophy. We hypothesize that two different cerebellar networks contribute to the metrics of a movement: the medial cerebellar structures determine accuracy, whereas the lateral cerebellar structures control precision. The lateral cerebellum (hemispheres and DN) also participates in modulating goal directed gaze behaviour, by prioritizing volitional over reflexive movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Rosini
- Eye tracking and Visual Application Lab (EVA Lab) - Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Mignarri
- Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | | | - Valeria Serchi
- Eye tracking and Visual Application Lab (EVA Lab) - Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Nicola De Stefano
- Quantitative Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Marco Battaglini
- Quantitative Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Lucia Monti
- Unit NINT, Neuroimaging and Neurointervention, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
| | - Maria T Dotti
- Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Antonio Federico
- Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Alessandra Rufa
- Eye tracking and Visual Application Lab (EVA Lab) - Neurology and Neurometabolic Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Italy
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Conscious error perception: The impact of response interference from a secondary task. Atten Percept Psychophys 2017; 79:863-877. [PMID: 28144831 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-016-1276-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
An erroneous response is not always accompanied by the conscious perception of the error being made. We examined whether increased response interference on a manual task improved the conscious perception of erroneous eye movements on a concurrent oculomotor task. In the first experiment, we examined whether a correlate of response interference, increased task difficulty alone, could improve perception of errors. We found no effect of task difficulty on self-monitoring. Results from a second experiment suggested that participants' ability to monitor their eye movements improved with increased response interference, but post hoc analyses indicated that this was due to a decrease in corrective behaviors. Experiment 3 required participants to report directly on whether they had made an eye movement error, and we found that response interference perturbed, rather than improved, participants' ability to report on their errors. Together, these findings contribute to models of error monitoring, revealing little support for the view that general increases in response interference or task difficulty are signals that contribute to the conscious detection of errors.
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Noiret N, Vigneron B, Diogo M, Vandel P, Laurent É. Saccadic eye movements: what do they tell us about aging cognition? AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2016; 24:575-599. [DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2016.1237613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Noiret
- Laboratoire de Psychologie EA-3188, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
- Centre Mémoire de Ressources et de Recherche (CMRR), Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire (CHRU) Jean Minjoz, Besançon, France
| | - Blanche Vigneron
- Laboratoire de Psychologie EA-3188, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Marine Diogo
- Laboratoire de Psychologie EA-3188, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Pierre Vandel
- Centre Mémoire de Ressources et de Recherche (CMRR), Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire (CHRU) Jean Minjoz, Besançon, France
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences EA-481, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Éric Laurent
- Laboratoire de Psychologie EA-3188, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
- Maison des Sciences de l’Homme et de l’Environnement (UMSR-3124), CNRS & Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
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Dias NR, Schmitz JM, Rathnayaka N, Red SD, Sereno AB, Moeller FG, Lane SD. Anti-saccade error rates as a measure of attentional bias in cocaine dependent subjects. Behav Brain Res 2015; 292:493-9. [PMID: 26164486 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cocaine-dependent (CD) subjects show attentional bias toward cocaine-related cues, and this form of cue-reactivity may be predictive of craving and relapse. Attentional bias has previously been assessed by models that present drug-relevant stimuli and measure physiological and behavioral reactivity (often reaction time). Studies of several CNS diseases outside of substance use disorders consistently report anti-saccade deficits, suggesting a compromise in the interplay between higher-order cortical processes in voluntary eye control (i.e., anti-saccades) and reflexive saccades driven more by involuntary midbrain perceptual input (i.e., pro-saccades). Here, we describe a novel attentional-bias task developed by using measurements of saccadic eye movements in the presence of cocaine-specific stimuli, combining previously unique research domains to capitalize on their respective experimental and conceptual strengths. CD subjects (N = 46) and healthy controls (N = 41) were tested on blocks of pro-saccade and anti-saccade trials featuring cocaine and neutral stimuli (pictures). Analyses of eye-movement data indicated (1) greater overall anti-saccade errors in the CD group; (2) greater attentional bias in CD subjects as measured by anti-saccade errors to cocaine-specific (relative to neutral) stimuli; and (3) no differences in pro-saccade error rates. Attentional bias was correlated with scores on the obsessive-compulsive cocaine scale. The results demonstrate increased saliency and differential attentional to cocaine cues by the CD group. The assay provides a sensitive index of saccadic (visual inhibitory) control, a specific index of attentional bias to drug-relevant cues, and preliminary insight into the visual circuitry that may contribute to drug-specific cue reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeeka R Dias
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States.
| | - Joy M Schmitz
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States
| | - Nuvan Rathnayaka
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States
| | - Stuart D Red
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States
| | - Anne B Sereno
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States
| | - F Gerard Moeller
- VCU School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 203 East Cary Street, Suite 202, Richmond, VA 23219, United States
| | - Scott D Lane
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 1941 East Rd, Houston, TX 77054, United States
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Peltsch A, Hemraj A, Garcia A, Munoz DP. Saccade deficits in amnestic mild cognitive impairment resemble mild Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 39:2000-13. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Peltsch
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Alisha Hemraj
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Angeles Garcia
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
- Department of Medicine; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
| | - Douglas P. Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
- Department of Medicine; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
- Department of Psychology; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
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12
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Bowling AC, Lindsay P, Smith BG, Storok K. Saccadic eye movements as indicators of cognitive function in older adults. AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2014; 22:201-19. [DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2014.901290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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