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Conforti S, Marinelli CV, Zoccolotti P, Martelli M. The metrics of reading speed: understanding developmental dyslexia. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4109. [PMID: 38374129 PMCID: PMC10876942 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-52330-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
We compared reading words and pseudo-words presented in single displays (as typical of psycholinguistic research) with stimuli presented in multiple displays (as typical of real-life conditions and clinical testing) under controlled conditions. Italian sixth-grade children with and without a reading deficit showed an advantage in reading times for multiple over single displays. This finding was partly ascribed to the capacity to overlap the non-decisional component of the response, an effect present in control readers as well as children with dyslexia. Furthermore, there were several indications in the data that the requirement to read sequentially taxes performance by augmenting the relative impact of the experimental manipulations used. This effect was present in both groups of children, but proportionally stronger in children with dyslexia. The study contributes to filling the gap between single and multiple displays, a condition more like real-life situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Conforti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Valeria Marinelli
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Lab, Department of Humanities, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy.
| | - Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Tuscany Rehabilitation Clinic, Montevarchi, Italy
| | - Marialuisa Martelli
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Tuscany Rehabilitation Clinic, Montevarchi, Italy
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Daini R, De Fabritiis P, Ginocchio C, Lenti C, Lentini CM, Marzorati D, Lorusso ML. Revisiting Strephosymbolie: The Connection between Interhemispheric Transfer and Developmental Dyslexia. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E67. [PMID: 29673166 PMCID: PMC5924403 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8040067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothesis that an atypical hemispheric specialization is associated to developmental dyslexia (DD) is receiving renewed interest, lending some support to Orton’s theory. In this article, we investigated whether interhemispheric transfer processes (IHT) are likely to be involved in developmental dyslexia. In this study, we tested 13 children with developmental dyslexia and 13 matched controls (aged 8 to 13 years) in four different tasks. In a tactile transfer task, the dyslexic children’s performance was less accurate. In a standard Poffenberger paradigm, dyslexic children performed slower than the controls in all conditions and did not show any difference between crossed and uncrossed conditions. Furthermore, they showed an increased asymmetry of performance according to the responding hand, while controls gave more coherent responses. In a visual task of object orientation discrimination, dyslexic children had slower Response Times (RTs) than controls, especially for mirror-reversed objects in the right visual field. Finally, a higher number of dyslexic children showed mirror-drawing or mirror-writing with respect to controls. Our results as a whole show that children with DD are impaired in interhemispheric transfer, although the differences in performance among dyslexic individuals suggest the impairment of different psychophysiological mechanisms. As such, a common origin in terms of connectivity problems is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Daini
- Department of Psychology, and Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy.
- University Research Centre in Optics and Optometry, Università di Milano-Bicocca (COMiB), 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Paola De Fabritiis
- Department of Psychology, and Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Chiara Ginocchio
- Department of Psychology, and Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Carlo Lenti
- U.O. Neuropsichiatria Dell'infanzia e Dell'adolescenza ASST Santi PaoloCarlo, 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Cristina Michela Lentini
- Department of Psychology, and Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Donatella Marzorati
- U.O. Neuropsichiatria Dell'infanzia e Dell'adolescenza ASST Santi PaoloCarlo, 20126 Milano, Italy.
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Abstract
The study examined whether developmental deficits in reading and numerical skills could be expressed in terms of global factors by reference to the rate and amount (RAM) and difference engine (DEM) models. From a sample of 325 fifth grade children, we identified 5 children with dyslexia, 16 with dyscalculia, 7 with a “mixed pattern,” and 49 control children. Children were asked to read aloud words presented individually that varied for frequency and length and to respond (either vocally or manually) to a series of simple number tasks (addition, subtraction, number reading, and number comparisons). Reaction times were measured. Results indicated that the deficit of children with dyscalculia and children with a mixed pattern on numerical tasks could be explained by a single global factor, similarly to the reading deficit shown by children with dyslexia. As predicted by the DEM, increases in task difficulty were accompanied by a corresponding increase in inter-individual variability for both the reading and numerical tasks. These relationships were constant across the four groups of children but differed in terms of slope and intercept on the x-axis, indicating that two different general rules underlie performance in reading and numerical skills. The study shows for the first time that, as previously shown for reading, also numerical performance can be explained with reference to a global factor. The advantage of this approach is that it takes into account the over-additivity effect, i.e., the presence of larger group differences in the case of more difficult conditions over and above the characteristics of the experimental conditions. It is concluded that reference to models such as the RAM and DEM can be useful in delineating the characteristics of the dyscalculic deficit as well as in the description of co-morbid disturbances, as in the case of dyslexia and dyscalculia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Di Filippo
- Faculty of Educational Sciences, Niccolò Cusano University, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Gloria Di Filippo, Pierluigi Zoccolotti,
| | - Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Neuropsychological Unit, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Gloria Di Filippo, Pierluigi Zoccolotti,
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De Luca M, Marinelli CV, Spinelli D, Zoccolotti P. Slowing in reading and picture naming: the effects of aging and developmental dyslexia. Exp Brain Res 2017; 235:3093-3109. [PMID: 28744622 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-017-5041-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We examined the slowing in vocal reaction times shown by dyslexic (compared to control) children with that of older (compared to younger) adults using an approach focusing on the detection of global, non-task-specific components. To address this aim, data were analyzed with reference to the difference engine (DEM) and rate and amount (RAM) models. In Experiment 1, typically developing children, children with dyslexia (both attending sixth grade), younger adults and older adults read words and non-words and named pictures. In Experiment 2, word and picture conditions were presented to dyslexic and control children attending eighth grade. In both experiments, dyslexic children were delayed in reading conditions, while they were unimpaired in naming pictures (a finding which indicates spared access to the phonological lexicon). The reading difficulty was well accounted for by a single multiplicative factor while only the residual effect of length (but not frequency and lexicality) was present after controlling for over-additivity using a linear mixed effects model with random slopes on critical variables. Older adults were slower than younger adults across reading and naming conditions. This deficit was well described by a single multiplicative factor. Thus, while slowing of information processing is limited to orthographic stimuli in dyslexic children, it cuts across verbal tasks in older adults. Overall, speed differences in groups such as dyslexic children and older adults can be effectively described with reference to deficits in domains encompassing a variety of experimental conditions rather than deficits in single specific task/conditions. The DEM and RAM prove effective in teasing out global vs. specific components of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria De Luca
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Valeria Marinelli
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Applied Psychology and Intervention "DREAM", Department of History Society and Human Studies, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Donatella Spinelli
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Human Movement Sciences and Health, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy. .,Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00176, Rome, Italy.
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Reading and lexical-decision tasks generate different patterns of individual variability as a function of condition difficulty. Psychon Bull Rev 2017; 25:1161-1169. [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-017-1335-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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The Developmental Lexicon Project: A behavioral database to investigate visual word recognition across the lifespan. Behav Res Methods 2017; 49:2183-2203. [DOI: 10.3758/s13428-016-0851-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Primativo S, Spinelli D, Zoccolotti P, De Luca M, Martelli M. Perceptual and Cognitive Factors Imposing "Speed Limits" on Reading Rate: A Study with the Rapid Serial Visual Presentation. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153786. [PMID: 27088226 PMCID: PMC4835101 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Adults read at high speed, but estimates of their reading rate vary greatly, i.e., from 100 to 1500 words per minute (wpm). This discrepancy is likely due to different recording methods and to the different perceptual and cognitive processes involved in specific test conditions. The present study investigated the origins of these notable differences in RSVP reading rate (RR). In six experiments we investigated the role of many different perceptual and cognitive variables. The presence of a mask caused a steep decline in reading rate, with an estimated masking cost of about 200 wpm. When the decoding process was isolated, RR approached values of 1200 wpm. When the number of stimuli exceeded the short-term memory span, RR decreased to 800 wpm. The semantic context contributed to reading speed only by a factor of 1.4. Finally, eye movements imposed an upper limit on RR (around 300 wpm). Overall, data indicate a speed limit of 300 wpm, which corresponds to the time needed for eye movement execution, i.e., the most time consuming mechanism. Results reconcile differences in reading rates reported by different laboratories and thus provide suggestions for targeting different components of reading rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Primativo
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Dementia Research Centre, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SP); (MM)
| | - Donatella Spinelli
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
- University of Rome «Foro Italico», Rome, Italy
| | - Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Marialuisa Martelli
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail: (SP); (MM)
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Zoccolotti P, De Luca M, Spinelli D. Discrete versus multiple word displays: a re-analysis of studies comparing dyslexic and typically developing children. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1530. [PMID: 26500588 PMCID: PMC4595781 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The study examines whether impairments in reading a text can be explained by a deficit in word decoding or an additional deficit in the processes governing the integration of reading subcomponents (including eye movement programming and pronunciation) should also be postulated. We report a re-analysis of data from eleven previous experiments conducted in our lab where the reading performance on single, discrete word displays as well multiple displays (texts, and in few cases also word lists) was investigated in groups of dyslexic children and typically developing readers. The analysis focuses on measures of time and not accuracy. Across experiments, dyslexic children are slower and more variable than typically developing readers in reading texts as well as vocal reaction time (RTs) to singly presented words; the dis-homogeneity in variability between groups points to the inappropriateness of standard measures of size effect (such as Cohen’s d), and suggests the use of the ratio between groups’ performance. The mean ratio for text reading is 1.95 across experiments. Mean ratio for vocal RTs for singly presented words is considerably smaller (1.52). Furthermore, this latter value is probably an overestimation as considering total reading times (i.e., a measure including also the pronunciation component) considerably reduces the group difference in vocal RTs (1.19 according to Martelli et al., 2014). The ratio difference between single and multiple displays does not depend upon the presence of a semantic context in the case of texts as large ratios are also observed with lists of unrelated words (though studies testing this aspect were few). We conclude that, if care is taken in using appropriate comparisons, the deficit in reading texts or lists of words is appreciably greater than that revealed with discrete word presentations. Thus, reading multiple stimuli present a specific, additional challenge to dyslexic children indicating that models of reading should incorporate this aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy ; Neuropsychology Unit, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico - Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy
| | - Maria De Luca
- Neuropsychology Unit, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico - Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Spinelli
- Neuropsychology Unit, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico - Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy ; Department of Human Movement Sciences and Health, University of Rome "Foro Italico" Rome, Italy
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Zoccolotti P, De Luca M, Marinelli CV, Spinelli D. Modeling individual differences in text reading fluency: a different pattern of predictors for typically developing and dyslexic readers. Front Psychol 2014; 5:1374. [PMID: 25477856 PMCID: PMC4235379 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was aimed at predicting individual differences in text reading fluency. The basic proposal included two factors, i.e., the ability to decode letter strings (measured by discrete pseudo-word reading) and integration of the various sub-components involved in reading (measured by Rapid Automatized Naming, RAN). Subsequently, a third factor was added to the model, i.e., naming of discrete digits. In order to use homogeneous measures, all contributing variables considered the entire processing of the item, including pronunciation time. The model, which was based on commonality analysis, was applied to data from a group of 43 typically developing readers (11- to 13-year-olds) and a group of 25 chronologically matched dyslexic children. In typically developing readers, both orthographic decoding and integration of reading sub-components contributed significantly to the overall prediction of text reading fluency. The model prediction was higher (from ca. 37 to 52% of the explained variance) when we included the naming of discrete digits variable, which had a suppressive effect on pseudo-word reading. In the dyslexic readers, the variance explained by the two-factor model was high (69%) and did not change when the third factor was added. The lack of a suppression effect was likely due to the prominent individual differences in poor orthographic decoding of the dyslexic children. Analyses on data from both groups of children were replicated by using patches of colors as stimuli (both in the RAN task and in the discrete naming task) obtaining similar results. We conclude that it is possible to predict much of the variance in text-reading fluency using basic processes, such as orthographic decoding and integration of reading sub-components, even without taking into consideration higher-order linguistic factors such as lexical, semantic and contextual abilities. The approach validity of using proximal vs. distal causes to predict reading fluency is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierluigi Zoccolotti
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy ; Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy
| | - Maria De Luca
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy
| | | | - Donatella Spinelli
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy ; Department of Human Movement Sciences and Health, University of Rome "Foro Italico" Rome, Italy
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Gasperini F, Brizzolara D, Cristofani P, Casalini C, Chilosi AM. The contribution of discrete-trial naming and visual recognition to rapid automatized naming deficits of dyslexic children with and without a history of language delay. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:652. [PMID: 25237301 PMCID: PMC4154447 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Children with Developmental Dyslexia (DD) are impaired in Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) tasks, where subjects are asked to name arrays of high frequency items as quickly as possible. However the reasons why RAN speed discriminates DD from typical readers are not yet fully understood. Our study was aimed to identify some of the cognitive mechanisms underlying RAN-reading relationship by comparing one group of 32 children with DD with an age-matched control group of typical readers on a naming and a visual recognition task both using a discrete-trial methodology, in addition to a serial RAN task, all using the same stimuli (digits and colors). Results showed a significant slowness of DD children in both serial and discrete-trial naming (DN) tasks regardless of type of stimulus, but no difference between the two groups on the discrete-trial recognition task. Significant differences between DD and control participants in the RAN task disappeared when performance in the DN task was partialled out by covariance analysis for colors, but not for digits. The same pattern held in a subgroup of DD subjects with a history of early language delay (LD). By contrast, in a subsample of DD children without LD the RAN deficit was specific for digits and disappeared after slowness in DN was partialled out. Slowness in DN was more evident for LD than for noLD DD children. Overall, our results confirm previous evidence indicating a name-retrieval deficit as a cognitive impairment underlying RAN slowness in DD children. This deficit seems to be more marked in DD children with previous LD. Moreover, additional cognitive deficits specifically associated with serial RAN tasks have to be taken into account when explaining deficient RAN speed of these latter children. We suggest that partially different cognitive dysfunctions underpin superficially similar RAN impairments in different subgroups of DD subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Gasperini
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris Pisa, Italy
| | - Daniela Brizzolara
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris Pisa, Italy
| | - Paola Cristofani
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris Pisa, Italy
| | - Claudia Casalini
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris Pisa, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Chilosi
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris Pisa, Italy
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Kwok RKW, Ellis AW. Visual word learning in adults with dyslexia. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:264. [PMID: 24834044 PMCID: PMC4018562 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated word learning in university and college students with a diagnosis of dyslexia and in typically-reading controls. Participants read aloud short (4-letter) and longer (7-letter) nonwords as quickly as possible. The nonwords were repeated across 10 blocks, using a different random order in each block. Participants returned 7 days later and repeated the experiment. Accuracy was high in both groups. The dyslexics were substantially slower than the controls at reading the nonwords throughout the experiment. They also showed a larger length effect, indicating less effective decoding skills. Learning was demonstrated by faster reading of the nonwords across repeated presentations and by a reduction in the difference in reading speeds between shorter and longer nonwords. The dyslexics required more presentations of the nonwords before the length effect became non-significant, only showing convergence in reaction times between shorter and longer items in the second testing session where controls achieved convergence part-way through the first session. Participants also completed a psychological test battery assessing reading and spelling, vocabulary, phonological awareness, working memory, nonverbal ability and motor speed. The dyslexics performed at a similar level to the controls on nonverbal ability but significantly less well on all the other measures. Regression analyses found that decoding ability, measured as the speed of reading aloud nonwords when they were presented for the first time, was predicted by a composite of word reading and spelling scores (“literacy”). Word learning was assessed in terms of the improvement in naming speeds over 10 blocks of training. Learning was predicted by vocabulary and working memory scores, but not by literacy, phonological awareness, nonverbal ability or motor speed. The results show that young dyslexic adults have problems both in pronouncing novel words and in learning new written words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa K W Kwok
- Department of Psychology, University of York York, UK
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De Luca M, Pontillo M, Primativo S, Spinelli D, Zoccolotti P. The eye-voice lead during oral reading in developmental dyslexia. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:696. [PMID: 24223541 PMCID: PMC3818695 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In reading aloud, the eye typically leads over voice position. In the present study, eye movements and voice utterances were simultaneously recorded and tracked during the reading of a meaningful text to evaluate the eye-voice lead in 16 dyslexic and 16 same-age control readers. Dyslexic children were slower than control peers in reading texts. Their slowness was characterized by a great number of silent pauses and sounding-out behaviors and a small lengthening of word articulation times. Regarding eye movements, dyslexic readers made many more eye fixations (and generally smaller rightward saccades) than controls. Eye movements and voice (which were shifted in time because of the eye-voice lead) were synchronized in dyslexic readers as well as controls. As expected, the eye-voice lead was significantly smaller in dyslexic than control readers, confirming early observations by Buswell (1921) and Fairbanks (1937). The eye-voice lead was significantly correlated with several eye movements and voice parameters, particularly number of fixations and silent pauses. The difference in performance between dyslexic and control readers across several eye and voice parameters was expressed by a ratio of about 2. We propose that referring to proportional differences allows for a parsimonious interpretation of the reading deficit in terms of a single deficit in word decoding. The possible source of this deficit may call for visual or phonological mechanisms, including Goswami's temporal sampling framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria De Luca
- Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia Rome, Italy
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