Atlanto-occipital ligament calcification: a novel imaging finding in pediatric rotational vertebral artery occlusion

The ligamentous cervical instability etiology of human disease from the forward head-facedown lifestyle: emphasis on obstruction of fluid flow into and out of the brain

Ligamentous cervical instability, especially ligamentous upper cervical instability, can be the missing structural cause and/or co-morbidity for many chronic disabling brain and systemic body symptoms and diagnoses. Due to the forward head-facedown lifestyle from excessive computer and cell phone usage, the posterior ligament complex of the cervical spine undergoes a slow stretch termed "creep" which can, over time, lead to cervical instability and a breakdown of the cervical curve. As this degenerative process continues, the cervical curve straightens and ultimately becomes kyphotic, a process called cervical dysstructure; simultaneously, the atlas (C1) moves forward, both of which can lead to encroachment of the structures in the carotid sheath, especially the internal jugular veins and vagus nerves. This obstruction of fluid flow can account for many brain diseases, and compression and stretch of the vagus nerve for body diseases, including dysautonomia. This article describes the consequences of impaired fluid flow into and out of the brain, especially venous flow through the internal jugular veins, leading to intracranial hypertension (formerly called pseudotumor cerebri). Cervical structural, internal jugular vein, and optic nerve sheath measurements are presented from a retrospective chart review of 227 consecutive patients with no obvious cause for 1 of 8 specific brain or mental health symptoms-anxiety, brain fog, concentration difficulty, depression/hopelessness, headaches, obsessive thoughts, panic attacks, and rumination on traumatic events. A case example is given to demonstrate how cervical structural treatments can open up internal jugular veins and improve a patient's chronic symptoms.

Clinical response to surgical decompression in atypical pediatric Bow Hunter's syndrome suggesting alternative pathophysiology: Case report

Bow Hunter's syndrome is a rare cause of posterior circulation ischemia, produced by the mechanical and reversible occlusion of the vertebral artery during cephalic rotation. Diagnosis requires clinical suspicion and careful inspection of images with three-dimensional reconstruction. The study of choice is dynamic digital subtraction angiography (DSA). Treatment alternatives are: medical, surgical or endovascular. We report the case of an 8-year-old boy with recurrent infarctions of the posterior circulation secondary to the dissection of the vertebral artery, in association with an occipital bone spur. Dynamic DSA was negative. Conservative initial management was elected with cervical immobilization and anticoagulation, but due to persistence of symptoms, surgical decompression was decided. The patient did not repeat symptoms postoperatively and returned to his usual life. This is the first case reported to our knowledge of a surgical pediatric patient with asymptomatic atypical compression of VA secondary to BHS, whose dynamic angiography was negative, suggesting an alternative mechanism of the syndrome.

Ischemic Stroke Secondary to Dynamic Vertebral Artery Stenosis: Case Report and Review of the Literature

Ischemic stroke secondary to dynamic vertebral artery stenosis or occlusion, also known as “bow hunter's syndrome,” is a rare stroke mechanism. We report a case of a 24-year-old man with multiple hereditary exostosis (MHE) diagnosed at childhood. His first presentation to a neurologist was due to neck pain and clinical syndrome suggestive of ischemia in the vertebrobasilar territory. A therapeutic occlusion was done successfully without complication. The patient was discharged two days later on aspirin alone. In follow up one year later he continued to be symptom free. Moreover, this stroke mechanism has been reported extensively in the literature in isolation or secondary to many underlying diseases. In total, there are 168 cases reported in the published English literature, in either case reports or small series. In this review, we found that by far, vertebral artery occlusion at the atlanto-axial (C1-2) level dominated most reported cases. The most frequent presentation that led to further investigation was syncope or pre-syncope provoked by head rotation to one side. To our knowledge, there is no previous report of any stroke syndrome related to MHE before our case. In this paper, we report the first case secondary to MHE and review the literature up to date since the first reported case in 1952.

An Unrecognized Ligament and its Ossification in the Craniocervical Junction: Prevalence, Patient Characteristics, and Anatomic Evidence

BACKGROUND

In the craniocervical junction, the ligaments between the anterior foramen magnum and the anterior arch of the atlas are not well defined, and ossification of the ligaments in this region has rarely been reported. Characterizing the anatomy and ossification of these ligaments may help in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders in this region.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

(1) What is the prevalence of an unrecognized ossification at the craniocervical junction in patients with cervical spine disorders, and what are the patient characteristics associated with this ossification? (2) Do patients with this ossification have a greater risk of ossification of other structures at the craniocervical junction or cervical spine? (3) Is there an unreported ligament at this ossified site?

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of 578 hospitalized patients who underwent CT for cervical spine disorders between January 2016 and July 2020. Based on the inclusion criteria, 11% (66 of 578) were excluded because of a cervical or craniocervical tumor, deformity, infection, fracture or dislocation, or prior surgery, leaving 89% (512 of 578) for analysis. These 512 patients had diagnoses of cervical radiculopathy, cervical myelopathy, cervical spondylotic amyotrophy, cervical spinal cord injury without a radiographic abnormality, or axial neck pain. Their mean age was 57 years (range 22-90 years), and 60% of the patients were men. Patient characteristics including age, gender, and diagnosis were retrieved from a longitudinally maintained institutional database. CT images were used to assess the presence of a previously unrecognized ossification and ossification of other structures in the craniocervical junction and cervical spine, including the posterior longitudinal ligament, anterior longitudinal ligament, nuchal ligament, ligamentum flavum, transverse ligament, and apical ligament, as well as diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). The association between these structures was also assessed. This unreported ossification was called the capped dens sign. It was defined and graded from 1 to 3. Grade 3 was defined as the typical capped dens sign. Cervical spine MRI was used to assess whether there was an unreported structure in the same region as where the capped dens sign was detected on CT images. In the database of a recent study, there were 33 patients younger than 41 years. Nine percent (three of 33) were excluded because they did not have cervical spine MRI. MRIs of the remaining 30 patients were assessed. Their mean age was 35 years (range 22-40 years), and 58% were men. All cervical spine CT images and MRIs were reviewed by one senior spine surgeon and one junior spine surgeon twice with a 2-week interval. Blinding was accomplished by removing identifying information from the radiographs and randomly assigning them to each examiner. Any discrepancy with respect to the grade of the capped dens sign was adjudicated by a third blinded senior spine surgeon. Intrarater and interrater reliabilities were assessed by calculating weighted kappa statistics. No ligament or membrane was reported at this site. MRI is not sensitive to identify thin tissue in this region, especially when severe degeneration has occurred. A cadaveric study was conducted to discover a potential ligament between the inferior margin of the foramen magnum and the anterior arch of the atlas, as prompted by the newly discovered ossification in the clinical analysis of this study. Six embalmed human cadaveric craniocervical regions (three male and three female cadavers; median age 56 years, range 45-78 years) were dissected by a senior anatomist and a senior anatomy technician. A mid-sagittal section of the craniocervical junction was created, allowing us to explore the interval between the anterior foramen magnum and anterior arch of the atlas. A histologic analysis was conducted in two of the six cadavers (a male cadaver, 45 years; and a female cadaver, 51 years). Slides were made with 4-µm sections and stained with hematoxylin and eosin.

RESULTS

A novel capped dens sign was detected in 39% (198 of 512) of the patients and the most typical capped dens sign was detected in 19% (96 of 512) of patients. The prevalence of this sign was the highest in patients with cervical spondylotic amyotrophy (12 of 25 patients). The prevalence of ossification of the anterior longitudinal ligament, ligamentum nuchae, and apical ligament, as well as DISH, was higher in patients with a capped dens sign than in those without (p = 0.04, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, and p = 0.001, respectively). The capped dens sign was identified in 69% (18 of 26) of the patients with DISH. A thin and short band-like structure or osteophyte was detected on MRI in 87% (26 of 30), in the same region as the capped dens sign. In the cadaveric study, an unreported, distinct ligamentous structure was identified at this ossified site. It originated from the posterosuperior rim of the anterior arch of the atlas to the inferior margin of the foramen magnum, which we called the inter-atlanto-occipital ligament. It was found in all six dissected craniocervical junctions. The histologic analysis revealed dense connective tissue.

CONCLUSION

More than one-third of the patients in this series demonstrated CT evidence of a previously unrecognized ossification in the craniocervical junction, which we called the capped dens sign. Anatomic evidence of this sign, which was a previously unidentified ligament, was also newly discovered in this region. This study was conducted among Asian patients and specimens. Further studies among diverse ethnic groups may be needed to generalize the results. An additional well-designed prospective study will be needed to provide further evidence regarding the potential pathophysiology and clinical relevance of the capped dens sign. Furthermore, the cadaveric analysis in this study was only a preliminary report of the ligament; further biomechanical research is needed to investigate its function.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Knowledge of this novel ligament may improve the diagnosis and treatment of craniocervical stability and dislocation. Ossification of this ligament is correlated with age, cervical spondylotic amyotrophy, and DISH. We wonder whether patients with cervical degenerative disorders who also have a capped dens sign may be at risk for the formation of osteophytes of an uncovertebral joint, which may result in palsy of the upper limb muscles. The capped dens sign may be the craniocervical manifestation of DISH. This possible association between the capped dens sign and DISH should be considered when performing surgery on patients with the capped dens sign.

Dynamic compression in vertebral artery dissection in children: apropos of a new protocol

PURPOSE

Our goals are (1) to report a consecutive prospective series of children who had posterior circulation stroke caused by vertebral artery dissection at the V3 segment; (2) to describe a configuration of the vertebral artery that may predispose to rotational compression; and (3) to recommend a new protocol for evaluation and treatment of vertebral artery dissection at V3.

METHODS

All children diagnosed with vertebral artery dissection at the V3 segment from September 2014 to July 2020 at our institution were included in the study. Demographic, clinical, surgical, and radiological data were collected.

RESULTS

Sixteen children were found to have dissection at a specific segment of the vertebral artery. Fourteen patients were male. Eleven were found to have compression on rotation during a provocative angiogram. All eleven underwent C1C2 posterior fusion as part of their treatment. Their mean age was 6.44 years (range 18 months-15 years). Mean blood loss was 57.7 mL. One minor complication occurred: a superficial wound infection treated with oral antibiotics only. There were no vascular or neurologic injuries. There have been no recurrent ischemic events after diagnosis and/or treatment. Mean follow-up was 33.3 months (range 2-59 months). We designed a new protocol to manage V3 dissections in children.

CONCLUSION

Posterior C1C2 fusion is a safe and effective option for treatment of dynamic compression in vertebral artery dissection in children. Institution of and compliance with a strict diagnostic and treatment protocol for V3 segment dissections seem to prevent recurrent stroke.

Bow hunter's syndrome due to an embolic mechanism: illustrative case

BACKGROUND

Bow hunter's syndrome (BHS) is an uncommon cause of vertebrobasilar ischemic stroke, which results from occlusion or injury to the vertebral artery (VA) during neck rotation. Although hemodynamic insufficiency is the predominant underlying mechanism of this entity, BHS due to embolic mechanisms is rare. The authors report a case of BHS characterized by repeated posterior circulation embolism and present some considerations of BHS with an embolic mechanism.

OBSERVATIONS

A 57-year-old man suffered from repeated embolic stroke in the posterior circulation. Digital subtraction angiography revealed caliber irregularity of the V3 segment of the left nondominant-side VA, which occluded when the neck rotated to the right side. The patient was diagnosed with BHS with an embolic mechanism due to endothelial damage caused by osteophytes at the C1 foramen transversarium. After C1-C2 fusion surgery, the patient never experienced the recurrence of stroke. According to a literature review, BHS due to embolic mechanisms tends to occur in young male adults, manifesting as recurrent stroke in the posterior circulation. Involvement of the nondominant-side VA can cause BHS with an underlying embolic mechanism.

LESSONS

BHS due to an embolic mechanism should be considered as a differential diagnosis if patients have repeated embolic strokes in the posterior circulation.

Bow Hunter's Syndrome in Children: A Review of the Literature and Presentation of a New Case in a 12-Year-Old Girl

BACKGROUND

Bow hunter's syndrome, or occlusion of the vertebral artery with head rotation leading to ischemia and sometimes stroke, is rarely described in children. The authors review the literature and present a new case.

METHODS

Both OVID dating back to 1946 and PubMed records were reviewed using the terms ("Bow hunter syndrome" OR "bow hunter's") OR "rotational vertebral artery occlusion" combined with "child," and limited to English language. SCOPUS and the bibliographies of cases found in the search were used to identify additional articles.

RESULTS

Twelve articles were found describing 25 patients; there were 26 patients when combined with our case. Ages ranged from 1 to 18 years. Most (88.5%, 23/26) were male. Medical treatments included aspirin, clopidogrel, abciximab, enoxaparin, warfarin, and cervical collar. Stenting was tried in 2 cases but did not work long-term. Surgical treatments included decompression, cervical fusion, or a combination. We present a new case of a 12-year-old girl with recurrent stroke who had bilateral vascular compression only visible on provocative angiographic imaging with head turn. She was referred for cervical fusion, and abnormal ligamentous laxity was noted intraoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

Bow hunter's syndrome is a rare but important cause of stroke since many of the patients experience recurrent strokes before the diagnosis is made. Reasons for the male predominance are unclear. Provocative angiography plays a key role in diagnosis, and both medical treatment and neurosurgical intervention may prevent recurrence.