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Tabari A, Lang M, Awan K, Liu W, Clifford B, Lo WC, Splitthoff DN, Cauley S, Rapalino O, Schaefer P, Huang SY, Conklin J. Optimized flow compensation for contrast-enhanced T1-weighted Wave-CAIPI 3D MPRAGE imaging of the brain. Eur Radiol Exp 2023; 7:34. [PMID: 37394534 DOI: 10.1186/s41747-023-00351-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Flow-related artifacts have been observed in highly accelerated T1-weighted contrast-enhanced wave-controlled aliasing in parallel imaging (CAIPI) magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo (MPRAGE) imaging and can lead to diagnostic uncertainty. We developed an optimized flow-mitigated Wave-CAIPI MPRAGE acquisition protocol to reduce these artifacts through testing in a custom-built flow phantom. In the phantom experiment, maximal flow artifact reduction was achieved with the combination of flow compensation gradients and radial reordered k-space acquisition and was included in the optimized sequence. Clinical evaluation of the optimized MPRAGE sequence was performed in 64 adult patients, who all underwent contrast-enhanced Wave-CAIPI MPRAGE imaging without flow-compensation and with optimized flow-compensation parameters. All images were evaluated for the presence of flow-related artifacts, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), gray-white matter contrast, enhancing lesion contrast, and image sharpness on a 3-point Likert scale. In the 64 cases, the optimized flow mitigation protocol reduced flow-related artifacts in 89% and 94% of the cases for raters 1 and 2, respectively. SNR, gray-white matter contrast, enhancing lesion contrast, and image sharpness were rated as equivalent for standard and flow-mitigated Wave-CAIPI MPRAGE in all subjects. The optimized flow mitigation protocol successfully reduced the presence of flow-related artifacts in the majority of cases.Relevance statementAs accelerated MRI using novel encoding schemes become increasingly adopted in clinical practice, our work highlights the need to recognize and develop strategies to minimize the presence of unexpected artifacts and reduction in image quality as potential compromises to achieving short scan times.Key points• Flow-mitigation technique led to an 89-94% decrease in flow-related artifacts.• Image quality, signal-to-noise ratio, enhancing lesion conspicuity, and image sharpness were preserved with the flow mitigation technique.• Flow mitigation reduced diagnostic uncertainty in cases where flow-related artifacts mimicked enhancing lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Tabari
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Min Lang
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Komal Awan
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Wei Liu
- Siemens Shenzhen Magnetic Resonance Ltd., Shenzhen, China
| | | | | | | | - Stephen Cauley
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Otto Rapalino
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Pamela Schaefer
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Susie Y Huang
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - John Conklin
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Charlestown, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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2
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Vossough A. Newer MRI Techniques in Pediatric Neuroimaging. Semin Roentgenol 2023; 58:131-144. [PMID: 36732007 DOI: 10.1053/j.ro.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arastoo Vossough
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA..
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Lee EJ, Kim MG, Chung MS, Kim SO, Byun JS, Yim Y. Diagnosis of intracranial lesions using accelerated 3D T1 MPRAGE with wave-CAIPI technique: comparison with conventional 3D T1 MPRAGE. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21930. [PMID: 36536040 PMCID: PMC9763340 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25725-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate the agreement in the diagnosis of intracranial lesions between conventional pre-contrast 3D T1 magnetization-prepared rapid gradient echo (MPRAGE) and wave-CAIPI (wave-controlled aliasing in parallel imaging) MPRAGE. Institutional review board approval was obtained and informed consent was waived for this retrospective study. We included 149 consecutive patients who had undergone brain MR with both conventional MPRAGE (scan time: 5 min 42 s) and wave-CAIPI MPRAGE (scan time: 2 min 44 s) from February to June 2018. All images were independently reviewed by two radiologists for the diagnosis of intracranial lesion and scored image quality using visual analysis. One technician measured signal-to-noise ratio. The agreement for diagnosis of intracranial lesion was calculated, and the intra- and interobserver agreements were analyzed by using kappa value. For the diagnosis of intracranial lesion, the conventional and wave-CAIPI MPRAGE demonstrated 99.7% of agreement (297 of 298) in the pooled analysis with very good agreement (k = 0.994). Intra- and inter-observer agreement showed very good (k > 0.9 in all) and good (k > 0.75) agreement, respectively. In the quantitative analysis, the signal-to-noise ratio had no difference (P > 0.05 for all). The overall image quality was poorer in images of wave-CAIPI MPRAGE (P < 0.001), but motion artifact had no difference between two sequences (P = 0.06). Compared to conventional MPRAGE, pre-contrast 3D T1 wave-CAIPI MPRAGE achieved higher agreement for the diagnosis of intracranial lesions and reduced the scan time by approximately 50%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Jung Lee
- Department of Radiology, Human Medical Imaging & Intervention Center, Seoul, Korea ,grid.254224.70000 0001 0789 9563Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, 102 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Gu Kim
- grid.254224.70000 0001 0789 9563Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, 102 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi Sun Chung
- Department of Radiology, Human Medical Imaging & Intervention Center, Seoul, Korea ,grid.254224.70000 0001 0789 9563Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, 102 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon-Ok Kim
- grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, 86 Asanbyeongwon-Gil, Songpa-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Soo Byun
- Department of Radiology, Human Medical Imaging & Intervention Center, Seoul, Korea ,grid.254224.70000 0001 0789 9563Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, 102 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Younghee Yim
- grid.254224.70000 0001 0789 9563Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, 102 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Yun SY, Heo YJ. Accelerated Nonenhanced 3D T1-MPRAGE Using Wave-Controlled Aliasing in Parallel Imaging for Infant Brain Imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2022; 43:1797-1801. [PMID: 36265893 DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.a7680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE MPRAGE is the most commonly used sequence for high-resolution 3D T1-weighted imaging in pediatric patients. However, its longer scan time is a major drawback because pediatric patients are prone to motion and frequently require sedation. This study compared nonenhanced accelerated MPRAGE using wave-controlled aliasing in parallel imaging (wave-T1-MPRAGE) with standard MPRAGE in infants. MATERIALS AND METHODS We retrospectively evaluated 68 infants (mean age, 1.78 [SD. 1.70] months) who underwent nonenhanced standard and wave-T1-MPRAGE. Two neuroradiologists independently assessed each image for image quality, artifacts, myelination degree, and anatomic delineation using the 4-point Likert scale. For diagnostic performance, both observers determined whether nonenhancing lesions were present in the brain parenchyma in 2 types of nonenhanced MPRAGE sequences. RESULTS Wave-T1-MPRAGE showed a significantly lower mean score and lower interobserver agreement for overall image quality and anatomic delineation than standard MPRAGE (P< .001 for each). However, there were no significant differences between the 2 types of MPRAGE sequences for motion artifacts (P = .90 for observer 1, P = .14 for observer 2) and degree of myelination (P = .16 for observer 1, P = .32 for observer 2). Among the nonenhancing pathologic lesions observed on standard MPRAGE by both observers, only 2 were missed on wave-T1-MPRAGE, and they were very tiny, faint, nonhemorrhagic WM injuries. CONCLUSIONS Although wave-T1-MPRAGE showed lower overall image quality than standard MPRAGE, the diagnostic performance for nonenhancing parenchymal lesions was comparable. Wave-T1-MPRAGE could be an alternative for diagnosing intracranial lesions in infants, with marked scan time reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Y Yun
- From the Department of Radiology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Busan, South Korea
| | - Y J Heo
- From the Department of Radiology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Busan, South Korea
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Gallo-Bernal S, Bedoya MA, Gee MS, Jaimes C. Pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: faster is better. Pediatr Radiol 2022:10.1007/s00247-022-05529-x. [PMID: 36261512 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-022-05529-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has emerged as the preferred imaging modality for evaluating a wide range of pediatric medical conditions. Nevertheless, the long acquisition times associated with this technique can limit its widespread use in young children, resulting in motion-degraded or non-diagnostic studies. As a result, sedation or general anesthesia is often necessary to obtain diagnostic images, which has implications for the safety profile of MRI, the cost of the exam and the radiology department's clinical workflow. Over the last decade, several techniques have been developed to increase the speed of MRI, including parallel imaging, single-shot acquisition, controlled aliasing techniques, compressed sensing and artificial-intelligence-based reconstructions. These are advantageous because shorter examinations decrease the need for sedation and the severity of motion artifacts, increase scanner throughput, and improve system efficiency. In this review we discuss a framework for image acceleration in children that includes the synergistic use of state-of-the-art MRI hardware and optimized pulse sequences. The discussion is framed within the context of pediatric radiology and incorporates the authors' experience in deploying these techniques in routine clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gallo-Bernal
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - M Alejandra Bedoya
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Ave., 2nd floor, Main Building, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Michael S Gee
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Camilo Jaimes
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Ave., 2nd floor, Main Building, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Figueiro Longo MG, Jaimes C, Machado F, Delgado J, Gee MS. Pediatric Emergency MRI. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2022; 30:533-552. [PMID: 35995478 DOI: 10.1016/j.mric.2022.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
There is an overall increase in the use of imaging in the pediatric emergency room setting, which is accompanied by a reduction in computed tomography examinations performed mainly due to the increased awareness of the risks of ionizing radiation. Advances in MRI technology have led to shortened scan time, decreased motion sensitivity, and improved spatial resolution. With increased access to MRI in the emergency room setting, the goal of this article is to review major applications of MR in pediatric emergency room patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Gabriela Figueiro Longo
- Division of Pediatric Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Camilo Jaimes
- Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Fedel Machado
- Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jorge Delgado
- Division of MSK Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Michael S Gee
- Division of Pediatric Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Conklin J, Tabari A, Longo MGF, Cobos CJ, Setsompop K, Cauley SF, Kirsch JE, Huang SY, Rapalino O, Gee MS, Caruso PJ. Evaluation of highly accelerated wave controlled aliasing in parallel imaging (Wave-CAIPI) susceptibility-weighted imaging in the non-sedated pediatric setting: a pilot study. Pediatr Radiol 2022; 52:1115-1124. [PMID: 35119490 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-021-05273-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) is highly sensitive for intracranial hemorrhagic and mineralized lesions but is associated with long scan times. Wave controlled aliasing in parallel imaging (Wave-CAIPI) enables greater acceleration factors and might facilitate broader application of SWI, especially in motion-prone populations. OBJECTIVE To compare highly accelerated Wave-CAIPI SWI to standard SWI in the non-sedated pediatric outpatient setting, with respect to the following variables: estimated scan time, image noise, artifacts, visualization of normal anatomy and visualization of pathology. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty-eight children (11 girls, 17 boys; mean age ± standard deviation [SD] = 128.3±62 months) underwent 3-tesla (T) brain MRI, including standard three-dimensional (3-D) SWI sequence followed by a highly accelerated Wave-CAIPI SWI sequence for each subject. We rated all studies using a predefined 5-point scale and used the Wilcoxon signed rank test to assess the difference for each variable between sequences. RESULTS Wave-CAIPI SWI provided a 78% and 67% reduction in estimated scan time using the 32- and 20-channel coils, respectively, corresponding to estimated scan time reductions of 3.5 min and 3 min, respectively. All 28 children were imaged without anesthesia. Inter-reader agreement ranged from fair to substantial (k=0.67 for evaluation of pathology, 0.55 for anatomical contrast, 0.3 for central noise, and 0.71 for artifacts). Image noise was rated higher in the central brain with wave SWI (P<0.01), but not in the peripheral brain. There was no significant difference in the visualization of normal anatomical structures and visualization of pathology between the standard and wave SWI sequences (P=0.77 and P=0.79, respectively). CONCLUSION Highly accelerated Wave-CAIPI SWI of the brain can provide similar image quality to standard SWI, with estimated scan time reduction of 3-3.5 min depending on the radiofrequency coil used, with fewer motion artifacts, at a cost of mild but perceptibly increased noise in the central brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Conklin
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Azadeh Tabari
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Division of Pediatric Imaging, Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St., Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
| | - Maria Gabriela Figueiro Longo
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Camilo Jaimes Cobos
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kawin Setsompop
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Stephen F Cauley
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - John E Kirsch
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Susie Yi Huang
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Otto Rapalino
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael S Gee
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Division of Pediatric Imaging, Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St., Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Paul J Caruso
- Divisions of Emergency Imaging and Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Division of Pediatric Imaging, Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St., Boston, MA, 02114, USA
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8
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Arefeen Y, Beker O, Cho J, Yu H, Adalsteinsson E, Bilgic B. Scan-specific artifact reduction in k-space (SPARK) neural networks synergize with physics-based reconstruction to accelerate MRI. Magn Reson Med 2022; 87:764-780. [PMID: 34601751 PMCID: PMC8627503 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.29036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To develop a scan-specific model that estimates and corrects k-space errors made when reconstructing accelerated MRI data. METHODS Scan-specific artifact reduction in k-space (SPARK) trains a convolutional-neural-network to estimate and correct k-space errors made by an input reconstruction technique by back-propagating from the mean-squared-error loss between an auto-calibration signal (ACS) and the input technique's reconstructed ACS. First, SPARK is applied to generalized autocalibrating partially parallel acquisitions (GRAPPA) and demonstrates improved robustness over other scan-specific models, such as robust artificial-neural-networks for k-space interpolation (RAKI) and residual-RAKI. Subsequent experiments demonstrate that SPARK synergizes with residual-RAKI to improve reconstruction performance. SPARK also improves reconstruction quality when applied to advanced acquisition and reconstruction techniques like 2D virtual coil (VC-) GRAPPA, 2D LORAKS, 3D GRAPPA without an integrated ACS region, and 2D/3D wave-encoded imaging. RESULTS SPARK yields SSIM improvement and 1.5 - 2× root mean squared error (RMSE) reduction when applied to GRAPPA and improves robustness to ACS size for various acceleration rates in comparison to other scan-specific techniques. When applied to advanced reconstruction techniques such as residual-RAKI, 2D VC-GRAPPA and LORAKS, SPARK achieves up to 20% RMSE improvement. SPARK with 3D GRAPPA also improves RMSE performance by ~2×, SSIM performance, and perceived image quality without a fully sampled ACS region. Finally, SPARK synergizes with non-Cartesian, 2D and 3D wave-encoding imaging by reducing RMSE between 20% and 25% and providing qualitative improvements. CONCLUSION SPARK synergizes with physics-based acquisition and reconstruction techniques to improve accelerated MRI by training scan-specific models to estimate and correct reconstruction errors in k-space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamin Arefeen
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Onur Beker
- Computer and Communication Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jaejin Cho
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Heng Yu
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Elfar Adalsteinsson
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Berkin Bilgic
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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