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Sambrook JG, Figueroa F, Beck S. A genome-wide survey of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes and their paralogues in zebrafish. BMC Genomics 2005; 6:152. [PMID: 16271140 PMCID: PMC1309616 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-6-152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2005] [Accepted: 11/04/2005] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The genomic organisation of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) varies greatly between different vertebrates. In mammals, the classical MHC consists of a large number of linked genes (e.g. greater than 200 in humans) with predominantly immune function. In some birds, it consists of only a small number of linked MHC core genes (e.g. smaller than 20 in chickens) forming a minimal essential MHC and, in fish, the MHC consists of a so far unknown number of genes including non-linked MHC core genes. Here we report a survey of MHC genes and their paralogues in the zebrafish genome. RESULTS Using sequence similarity searches against the zebrafish draft genome assembly (Zv4, September 2004), 149 putative MHC gene loci and their paralogues have been identified. Of these, 41 map to chromosome 19 while the remaining loci are spread across essentially all chromosomes. Despite the fragmentation, a set of MHC core genes involved in peptide transport, loading and presentation are still found in a single linkage group. CONCLUSION The results extend the linkage information of MHC core genes on zebrafish chromosome 19 and show the distribution of the remaining MHC genes and their paralogues to be genome-wide. Although based on a draft genome assembly, this survey demonstrates an essentially fragmented MHC in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Sambrook
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 ISA, UK
| | - Felipe Figueroa
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biologie, Abteilung Immunogenetik, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephan Beck
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 ISA, UK
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Sambrook JG, Campbell RD, Elgar G. Characterisation of a gene cluster in Fugu rubripes containing the complement component C4 gene. Gene 2003; 312:73-83. [PMID: 12909342 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1119(03)00602-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we describe the characterisation of the complement component C4 gene in Fugu rubripes. The Fugu C4 gene, orthologous to the tetrapod C4 gene, encompasses a genomic span of 9702 base pairs and contains 41 exons, encoding the typical C4 three-chain polypeptide. The gene encodes a protein containing 1703 amino acids. The Fugu C4 protein demonstrates the presence of 25 conserved cysteine residues, as well as conservation of the functionally important thioester site. Complete sequencing of one cosmid and sequence scans from a cluster of 18 overlapping BAC clones, centering around the C4 gene, have identified the short-range linkage with five orthologous human genes mapping to the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) including: tenascin X (TNX); cytochrome P450, subfamily XXIA, polypeptide 2 (CYP21A2); allograft inflammatory factor 1 (AIF1) and casein kinase 2, beta polypeptide (CSNK2B), all found in the MHC class III region; and retinoid X receptor, beta (RXRB),which resides in the MHC extended class II region. To date, this syntenic association of the Fugu C4 and other MHC class III region genes has not been observed in other teleost fish. Data from the recent whole-genome shotgun assemblies reveal the Fugu MHC-related cluster of genes to be flanked predominantly by genes mapping to human chromosomes 7 and 19. All of the six identified Fugu MHC-related genes have been characterised at the genomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Sambrook
- Comparative Genomics, MRC UK HGMP Resource Centre, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SB, UK.
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Kulski JK, Shiina T, Anzai T, Kohara S, Inoko H. Comparative genomic analysis of the MHC: the evolution of class I duplication blocks, diversity and complexity from shark to man. Immunol Rev 2002; 190:95-122. [PMID: 12493009 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2002.19008.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genomic region is composed of a group of linked genes involved functionally with the adaptive and innate immune systems. The class I and class II genes are intrinsic features of the MHC and have been found in all the jawed vertebrates studied so far. The MHC genomic regions of the human and the chicken (B locus) have been fully sequenced and mapped, and the mouse MHC sequence is almost finished. Information on the MHC genomic structures (size, complexity, genic and intergenic composition and organization, gene order and number) of other vertebrates is largely limited or nonexistent. Therefore, we are mapping, sequencing and analyzing the MHC genomic regions of different human haplotypes and at least eight nonhuman species. Here, we review our progress with these sequences and compare the human MHC structure with that of the nonhuman primates (chimpanzee and rhesus macaque), other mammals (pigs, mice and rats) and nonmammalian vertebrates such as birds (chicken and quail), bony fish (medaka, pufferfish and zebrafish) and cartilaginous fish (nurse shark). This comparison reveals a complex MHC structure for mammals and a relatively simpler design for nonmammalian animals with a hypothetical prototypic structure for the shark. In the mammalian MHC, there are two to five different class I duplication blocks embedded within a framework of conserved nonclass I and/or nonclass II genes. With a few exceptions, the class I framework genes are absent from the MHC of birds, bony fish and sharks. Comparative genomics of the MHC reveal a highly plastic region with major structural differences between the mammalian and nonmammalian vertebrates. Additional genomic data are needed on animals of the reptilia, crocodilia and marsupial classes to find the origins of the class I framework genes and examples of structures that may be intermediate between the simple and complex MHC organizations of birds and mammals, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerzy K Kulski
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Bohseidai, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
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Beck S, Trowsdale J. The human major histocompatability complex: lessons from the DNA sequence. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2002; 1:117-37. [PMID: 11701627 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The entire 3.6-MbpDNA sequence of a human major histocompatibility complex derived from a composite of DNA clones from different haplotypes, was completed in 1999, primarily through the work of four main groups. At that time, it was the longest contiguous human DNA sequence to have been determined. The sequence is of extremely high quality and accuracy. In this review, we discuss how the DNA sequence has facilitated our understanding of the biology and genetics of the major histocompatibility complex. We suggest some ways in which the sequence may be exploited in the future to explore the relationship between the extraordinary polymorphism of the region and its association with both autoimmune and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Beck
- The Sanger Centre, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB10 1SA United Kindgom.
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Sültmann H, Murray BW, Klein J. Identification of seven genes in the major histocompatibility complex class I region of the zebrafish. Scand J Immunol 2000; 51:577-85. [PMID: 10849368 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3083.2000.00729.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Physical linkage of genes whose products are involved in similar physiological pathways may have functional significance. The identification of conserved gene linkage in distantly related organisms can therefore strengthen the hypothesis of selection acting towards keeping genes on a chromosome. We used the cDNA selection technique and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with generic primers for the identification of new genes on the genomic clones bearing the major histocompatibility complex (Mhc) class I genes of the zebrafish (Danio rerio). We found six new genes (BING1, DAXX, TAPBP, KNSL2, TAP2B and KE6) whose orthologues are known to be linked to the Mhc class II region in humans and mice. In addition, a new zebrafish Mhc class I gene, termed Dare-UFA, was detected. By contrast, a search for the human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-linked BING3, KE3 and SACM2L genes revealed that these loci are not located on the class I clones of the zebrafish. The zebrafish class I region contains repetitive elements with similarity to the DANA, SATA and LINE repeats, as well as Tc1 transposable elements. Our findings indicate a high degree of linkage conservation between the zebrafish class I and the mammalian class II regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Sültmann
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biologie, Abteilung Immungenetik, Tübingen, Germany
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Michalová V, Murray BW, Sültmann H, Klein J. A contig map of the Mhc class I genomic region in the zebrafish reveals ancient synteny. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:5296-305. [PMID: 10799891 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.10.5296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to the human and mouse Mhc, in which the clusters of class I and class II loci reside in close vicinity to one another, in the zebrafish, Danio rerio, they are found in different linkage groups. Chromosome walking using BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) and PAC (P1 artificial chromosome) clones reveals the zebrafish class I region to occupy a segment of approximately 450 kb and to encompass at least 19 loci. These include three class I (Dare-UDA, -UEA, -UFA), five proteasome subunit beta (PSMB8, -9A, -9C, -11, -12), two TAPs (TAP2A, TAP2B), and one TAP binding protein (TAPBP). This arrangement contrasts with the arrangements found in human and mouse Mhc, in which the orthologues of the PSMB, TAP, and TAPBP loci reside within the class II region. In addition to this main zebrafish class I contig, a shorter contig of about 150 kb contains two additional class I (UBA, UCA) and at least five other loci. It probably represents a different haplotype of part of the class I region. The previously identified UAA gene shares an identical 5' part with UEA, but the two genes differ in their 3' parts. One of them is probably the result of an unequal crossing over. The described organization has implications for the persistence of syntenic relationships, coevolution of loci, and interpretation of the origin of the human/mouse Mhc organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Michalová
- Max Planck Institut für Biologie, Abteilung Immungenetik, Tübingen, Germany
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Takami K, Figueroa F, Mayer WE, Klein J. Ancient allelism at the cytosolic chaperonin-alpha-encoding gene of the zebrafish. Genetics 2000; 154:311-22. [PMID: 10628990 PMCID: PMC1460920 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/154.1.311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The T-complex protein 1, TCP1, gene codes for the CCT-alpha subunit of the group II chaperonins. The gene was first described in the house mouse, in which it is closely linked to the T locus at a distance of approximately 11 cM from the Mhc. In the zebrafish, Danio rerio, in which the T homolog is linked to the class I Mhc loci, the TCP1 locus segregates independently of both the T and the Mhc loci. Despite its conservation between species, the zebrafish TCP1 locus is highly polymorphic. In a sample of 15 individuals and the screening of a cDNA library, 12 different alleles were found, and some of the allelic pairs were found to differ by up to nine nucleotides in a 275-bp-long stretch of sequence. The substitutions occur in both translated and untranslated regions, but in the former they occur predominantly at synonymous codon sites. Phylogenetically, the alleles fall into two groups distinguished also by the presence or absence of a 10-bp insertion/deletion in the 3' untranslated region. The two groups may have diverged as long as 3.5 mya, and the polymorphic differences may have accumulated by genetic drift in geographically isolated populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Takami
- Max-Planck-Institut f]ur Biologie, Abteilung Immungenetik, D-72076 T]ubingen, Germany
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Murray BW, Sültmann H, Klein J. Analysis of a 26-kb Region Linked to the Mhc in Zebrafish: Genomic Organization of the Proteasome Component β/Transporter Associated with Antigen Processing-2 Gene Cluster and Identification of Five New Proteasome β Subunit Genes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1999. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.163.5.2657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Sequencing of zebrafish (Danio rerio) bacterial artificial chromosome and P1 artificial chromosome genomic clone fragments and of cDNA clones has led to the identification of five new loci coding for β subunits of proteasomes (PSMB). Together with the four genes identified previously, nine PSMB genes have now been defined in the zebrafish. Six of the nine genes reside in the zebrafish MHC (Mhc) class I region, four of them reside in a single cluster closely associated with TAP2 on a 26-kb long genomic fragment, and two reside at some distance from the fragment. In addition to homologues of the human genes PSMB5 through PSMB9, two new genes, PSMB11 and PSMB12, have been found for which there are no known corresponding genes in humans. The new genes reside in the PSMB cluster in the Mhc. Homology and promoter region analysis suggest that the Mhc-associated genes might be inducible by IFN-γ. The zebrafish class I region contains representatives of three phylogenetically distinguishable groups of PSMB genes, X, Y, and Z. It is proposed that these genes were present in the ancestral PSMB region before Mhc class I genes became associated with it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent W. Murray
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biologie, Abt. Immungenetik, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Holger Sültmann
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biologie, Abt. Immungenetik, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jan Klein
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biologie, Abt. Immungenetik, Tübingen, Germany
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Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a genetic region that has been extensively studied by immunologists, molecular biologists, and evolutionary biologists. Nevertheless, our knowledge of how the MHC acquired its present-day organization is quite limited. The recent discovery that the mammalian genome contains regions paralogous to the MHC has led us to the proposal that the MHC region of jawed vertebrates arose as a result of ancient chromosomal duplications. Here, I review the current status of this proposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kasahara
- Department of Biosystems Science, Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Hayama, Japan.
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Yeager M, Hughes AL. Evolution of the mammalian MHC: natural selection, recombination, and convergent evolution. Immunol Rev 1999; 167:45-58. [PMID: 10319250 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1999.tb01381.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The genes that encode molecules involved in antigen presentation within the class I and class II regions of the mammalian major histocompatibility complex (MHC) include several that are highly polymorphic. There is evidence that this polymorphism is maintained by positive selection, most likely overdominant selection, relating to their role in presenting foreign peptides to T cells. This selection can maintain allelic lineages for much longer periods of time than neutral polymorphisms are expected to last, but sharing of polymorphic amino acid motifs among species of different mammalian orders is due to independent (or convergent) evolution rather than common ancestry. It has been suggested that interallelic recombination (gene conversion) plays a role in enhancing polymorphism, but there is evidence of striking differences among loci with respect to the rate at which such recombination has contributed to current polymorphism. Recent attempts to interpret linkage relationships in the MHC region as evidence of ancient genomic duplications are not supported by phylogenetic analysis. Rather, natural selection may have played a role in the linkage of other genes to those of the MHC.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Yeager
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
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Flajnik MF, Ohta Y, Namikawa-Yamada C, Nonaka M. Insight into the primordial MHC from studies in ectothermic vertebrates. Immunol Rev 1999; 167:59-67. [PMID: 10319251 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1999.tb01382.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
MHC classical class I and class II genes have been identified in representative species from all major jawed vertebrate taxa, the oldest group being the cartilaginous fish, whereas no class I/II genes of any type have been detected in animals from older taxa. Among ectothermic vertebrate classes, studies of MHC architecture have been done in cartilaginous fish (sharks), bony fish (several teleost species), and amphibians (the frog Xenopus). The Xenopus MHC contains class I, class II, and class III genes, demonstrating that all of these genes were linked in the ancestor of the tetrapods, but the gene order is not the same as that in mouse/man. Studies of polyploid Xenopus suggest that MHC genes can be differentially silenced when multiple copies are present; i.e. MHC 'subregions' can be silenced. Surprisingly, in all teleosts examined to date class I and class II genes are not linked. Likewise, class III genes like the complement genes factor B (Bf) and C4 are scattered throughout the genome of teleosts. However, the presumed classical class I genes are closely linked to the 'immune' proteasome genes, LMP2 and LMP7, and to the peptide-transporter genes (TAP), implying that a true 'class I region' exists in this group. A similar type of linkage group is found in chickens and perhaps Xenopus, and thus it may reveal the ancestral organization of class I-associated genes. In cartilaginous fish, classical and non-classical class I genes have been isolated from three shark species, and class II A and B chain genes from nurse sharks. Studies of MHC linkage in sharks are being carried out to provide further understanding of the putative primordial organization of MHC Segregation studies in one shark family point to linkage of classical class I and class II genes, suggesting that the non-linkage of these genes in teleosts is a derived characteristic.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Flajnik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore 21201, USA.
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Kasahara M. What do the paralogous regions in the genome tell us about the origin of the adaptive immune system? Immunol Rev 1998; 166:159-75. [PMID: 9914911 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1998.tb01261.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During the last decade, our understanding of the immune system of ectothermic vertebrates has advanced significantly. It is now clear that all jawed vertebrates are equipped with the adaptive immune system characterized by the MHC molecules and the rearranging receptors. In contrast, there is no molecular evidence that suggests the existence of adaptive immunity in jawless vertebrates. How did the adaptive immune system emerge? Our recent work suggests that one of the driving forces that enabled the emergence of the adaptive immune system was one or more genome-wide or large-scale chromosomal duplications presumed to have taken place in a common ancestor of jawed vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kasahara
- Department of Biosystems Science, Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Hayama, Japan.
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