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Gutiérrez-Corona JF, González-Hernández GA, Padilla-Guerrero IE, Olmedo-Monfil V, Martínez-Rocha AL, Patiño-Medina JA, Meza-Carmen V, Torres-Guzmán JC. Fungal Alcohol Dehydrogenases: Physiological Function, Molecular Properties, Regulation of Their Production, and Biotechnological Potential. Cells 2023; 12:2239. [PMID: 37759461 PMCID: PMC10526403 DOI: 10.3390/cells12182239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) participate in growth under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, morphogenetic processes, and pathogenesis of diverse fungal genera. These processes are associated with metabolic operation routes related to alcohol, aldehyde, and acid production. The number of ADH enzymes, their metabolic roles, and their functions vary within fungal species. The most studied ADHs are associated with ethanol metabolism, either as fermentative enzymes involved in the production of this alcohol or as oxidative enzymes necessary for the use of ethanol as a carbon source; other enzymes participate in survival under microaerobic conditions. The fast generation of data using genome sequencing provides an excellent opportunity to determine a correlation between the number of ADHs and fungal lifestyle. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the latest knowledge about the importance of ADH enzymes in the physiology and metabolism of fungal cells, as well as their structure, regulation, evolutionary relationships, and biotechnological potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Félix Gutiérrez-Corona
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
| | - Gloria Angélica González-Hernández
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
| | - Israel Enrique Padilla-Guerrero
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
| | - Vianey Olmedo-Monfil
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
| | - Ana Lilia Martínez-Rocha
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
| | - J. Alberto Patiño-Medina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químico Biológicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo (UMSNH), Morelia C.P. 58030, Mexico; (J.A.P.-M.); (V.M.-C.)
| | - Víctor Meza-Carmen
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químico Biológicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo (UMSNH), Morelia C.P. 58030, Mexico; (J.A.P.-M.); (V.M.-C.)
| | - Juan Carlos Torres-Guzmán
- Departamento de Biología, DCNE, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato C.P. 36050, Mexico; (G.A.G.-H.); (I.E.P.-G.); (V.O.-M.); (A.L.M.-R.)
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Utilizing Alcohol for Alkane Biosynthesis by Introducing a Fatty Alcohol Dehydrogenase. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0126422. [PMID: 36416567 PMCID: PMC9746291 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01264-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkanes produced by microorganisms are expected to be an alternative to fossil fuels as an energy source. Microbial synthesis of alkanes involves the formation of fatty aldehydes via fatty acyl coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) intermediates derived from fatty acid metabolism, followed by aldehyde decarbonylation to generate alkanes. Advancements in metabolic engineering have enabled the construction of such pathways in various microorganisms, including Escherichia coli. However, endogenous aldehyde reductases in the host microorganisms are highly active in converting fatty aldehydes to fatty alcohols, limiting the substrate pool for alkane production. To reuse the alcohol by-product, a screening of fatty alcohol-assimilating microorganisms was conducted, and a bacterial strain, Pantoea sp. strain 7-4, was found to convert 1-tetradecanol to tetradecanal. From this strain, an alcohol dehydrogenase, PsADH, was purified and found to be involved in 1-tetradecanol-oxidizing reaction. Subsequent heterologous expression of the PsADH gene in E. coli was conducted, and recombinant PsADH was purified for a series of biochemical characterizations, including cofactors, optimal reaction conditions, and kinetic parameters. Furthermore, direct alkane production from alcohol was achieved in E. coli by coexpressing PsADH with a cyanobacterial aldehyde-deformylating oxygenase and a reducing system, including ferredoxin and ferredoxin reductase, from Nostoc punctiforme PCC73102. The alcohol-aldehyde-alkane synthetic route established in this study will provide a new approach to utilizing fatty alcohols for the production of alkane biofuel. IMPORTANCE Alcohol dehydrogenases are a group of enzymes found in many organisms. Unfortunately, studies on these enzymes mainly focus on their activities toward short-chain alcohols. In this study, we discovered an alcohol dehydrogenase, PsADH, from the bacterium Pantoea sp. 7-4, which can oxidize 1-tetradecanol to tetradecanal. The medium-chain aldehyde products generated by this enzyme can serve as the substrate of aldehyde-deformylating oxygenase to produce alkanes. The enzyme found in this study can be applied to the biosynthetic pathway involving the formation of medium-chain aldehydes to produce alkanes and other valuable compounds.
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Orban A, Weber A, Herzog R, Hennicke F, Rühl M. Transcriptome of different fruiting stages in the cultivated mushroom Cyclocybe aegerita suggests a complex regulation of fruiting and reveals enzymes putatively involved in fungal oxylipin biosynthesis. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:324. [PMID: 33947322 PMCID: PMC8097960 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07648-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cyclocybe aegerita (syn. Agrocybe aegerita) is a commercially cultivated mushroom. Its archetypal agaric morphology and its ability to undergo its whole life cycle under laboratory conditions makes this fungus a well-suited model for studying fruiting body (basidiome, basidiocarp) development. To elucidate the so far barely understood biosynthesis of fungal volatiles, alterations in the transcriptome during different developmental stages of C. aegerita were analyzed and combined with changes in the volatile profile during its different fruiting stages. RESULTS A transcriptomic study at seven points in time during fruiting body development of C. aegerita with seven mycelial and five fruiting body stages was conducted. Differential gene expression was observed for genes involved in fungal fruiting body formation showing interesting transcriptional patterns and correlations of these fruiting-related genes with the developmental stages. Combining transcriptome and volatilome data, enzymes putatively involved in the biosynthesis of C8 oxylipins in C. aegerita including lipoxygenases (LOXs), dioxygenases (DOXs), hydroperoxide lyases (HPLs), alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) and ene-reductases could be identified. Furthermore, we were able to localize the mycelium as the main source for sesquiterpenes predominant during sporulation in the headspace of C. aegerita cultures. In contrast, changes in the C8 profile detected in late stages of development are probably due to the activity of enzymes located in the fruiting bodies. CONCLUSIONS In this study, the combination of volatilome and transcriptome data of C. aegerita revealed interesting candidates both for functional genetics-based analysis of fruiting-related genes and for prospective enzyme characterization studies to further elucidate the so far barely understood biosynthesis of fungal C8 oxylipins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Orban
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Food Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Hesse, Germany
| | - Annsophie Weber
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Food Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Hesse, Germany
| | - Robert Herzog
- International Institute Zittau, Technical University Dresden, 02763, Zittau, Saxony, Germany
| | - Florian Hennicke
- Project Group Genetics and Genomics of Fungi, Ruhr-University Bochum, Chair Evolution of Plants and Fungi, 44780, Bochum, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
| | - Martin Rühl
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Food Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Hesse, Germany. .,Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME Branch for Bioresources, 35392, Giessen, Hesse, Germany.
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Kruis AJ, Bohnenkamp AC, Patinios C, van Nuland YM, Levisson M, Mars AE, van den Berg C, Kengen SW, Weusthuis RA. Microbial production of short and medium chain esters: Enzymes, pathways, and applications. Biotechnol Adv 2019; 37:107407. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Dickschat JS, Celik E, Brock NL. Volatiles from three genome sequenced fungi from the genus Aspergillus. Beilstein J Org Chem 2018; 14:900-910. [PMID: 29765471 PMCID: PMC5942377 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.14.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The volatiles emitted by agar plate cultures of three genome sequenced fungal strains from the genus Aspergillus were analysed by GC-MS. All three strains produced terpenes for which a biosynthetic relationship is discussed. The obtained data were also correlated to genetic information about the encoded terpene synthases for each strain. Besides terpenes, a series of aromatic compounds and volatiles derived from fatty acid and branched amino acid metabolism were identified. Some of these compounds have not been described as fungal metabolites before. For the compound ethyl (E)-hept-4-enoate known from cantaloupe a structural revision to the Z stereoisomer is proposed. Ethyl (Z)-hept-4-enoate also occurs in Aspergillus clavatus and was identified by synthesis of an authentic standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen S Dickschat
- Kekulé-Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, Gerhard-Domagk-Straße 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ersin Celik
- Kekulé-Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, Gerhard-Domagk-Straße 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Nelson L Brock
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, TU Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany (former address)
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Zhu J, Lu K, Xu X, Wang X, Shi J. Purification and characterization of a novel glutamate dehydrogenase from Geotrichum candidum with higher alcohol and amino acid activity. AMB Express 2017; 7:9. [PMID: 28050850 PMCID: PMC5209314 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-016-0307-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Crude enzyme from Geotrichum candidum S12 exhibited high activity towards hexanol at pH 4.0, distinguishing it from currently known enzymes. To identify the dominant enzyme contributing to this activity, the crude enzyme extract was separated into different fractions by ammonium sulfate precipitation, MonoQ anion-exchange chromatography, and Sephacryl S-200 gel filtration chromatography. Afraction with high activity towards hexanol at pH 4.0 was obtained, exhibiting 38-fold improved purity and a specific activity of 3802.7 U/mg. After electrophoretic analysis, the fraction showed a molecular weight of 223 kDa by Native-PAGE and 51.4 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The purified fraction was identified as a glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) by peptide mass fingerprinting data. This fraction showed high activity towards glutamate, α-ketoglutarate, hexanol, and isoamyl alcohol with a Km value of 41.74, 4.01, 20.37, and 19.37 mM, respectively, but with no activity towards methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, and isobutanol. As a comparison, the GDH from yeast had no activity towards hexanol and other alcohols. Kinetic analysis revealed that glutamate and hexanol served as competitive inhibitors to each other for the purified GDH. The GDH showed the highest activity towards hexanol at pH 4.0 and 30 °C, and was the most stable at pH 2.2-7.0 and ≤40 °C. The presence of ADP, Fe2+, K+, and Zn2+ increased the enzymatic activity towards hexanol and EDTA, Pb2+, Mn2+, ATP, and DTT decreased the activity. These novel characteristics expand the reported properties of GDH and suggest the newly characterized GDH has unique potential for practical application.
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Löbs AK, Engel R, Schwartz C, Flores A, Wheeldon I. CRISPR-Cas9-enabled genetic disruptions for understanding ethanol and ethyl acetate biosynthesis in Kluyveromyces marxianus. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2017; 10:164. [PMID: 28652865 PMCID: PMC5483312 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0854-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The thermotolerant yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus shows promise as an industrial host for the biochemical production of fuels and chemicals. Wild-type strains are known to ferment high titers of ethanol and can effectively convert a wide range of C5, C6, and C12 sugars into the volatile short-chain ester ethyl acetate. Strain engineering, however, has been limited due to a lack of advanced genome-editing tools and an incomplete understanding of ester and ethanol biosynthesis. RESULTS Enabled by the design of hybrid RNA polymerase III promoters, this work adapts the CRISPR-Cas9 system from Streptococcus pyogenes for use in K. marxianus. The system was used to rapidly create functional disruptions to alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and alcohol-O-acetyltransferase (ATF) genes with putative function in ethyl acetate and ethanol biosynthesis. Screening of the KmATF disrupted strain revealed that Atf activity contributes to ethyl acetate biosynthesis, but the knockout reduced ethyl acetate titers by only ~15%. Overexpression experiments revealed that KmAdh7 can catalyze the oxidation of hemiacetal to ethyl acetate. Finally, analysis of the KmADH2 disrupted strain showed that the knockout almost completely eliminated ethanol production and resulted in the accumulation of acetaldehyde. CONCLUSIONS Newly designed RNA polymerase III promoters for sgRNA expression in K. marxianus enable a CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing system for the thermotolerant yeast. This system was used to disrupt genes involved in ethyl acetate biosynthesis, specifically KmADH1-7 and KmATF. KmAdh2 was found to be critical for aerobic and anaerobic ethanol production. Aerobically produced ethanol supplies the biosynthesis of ethyl acetate catalyzed by KmAtf. KmAdh7 was found to exhibit activity toward the oxidation of hemiacetal, a possible alternative route for the synthesis of ethyl acetate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin Löbs
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, 92521 USA
| | - Ronja Engel
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, 92521 USA
- Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Cory Schwartz
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, 92521 USA
| | - Andrew Flores
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, 92521 USA
| | - Ian Wheeldon
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, 92521 USA
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Glucose Starvation Alters Heat Shock Response, Leading to Death of Wild Type Cells and Survival of MAP Kinase Signaling Mutant. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0165980. [PMID: 27870869 PMCID: PMC5117620 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0165980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A moderate heat shock induces Neurospora crassa to synthesize large quantities of heat shock proteins that are protective against higher, otherwise lethal temperatures. However, wild type cells do not survive when carbohydrate deprivation is added to heat shock. In contrast, a mutant strain defective in a stress-activated protein kinase does survive the combined stresses. In order to understand the basis for this difference in survival, we have determined the relative levels of detected proteins in the mutant and wild type strain during dual stress, and we have identified gene transcripts in both strains whose quantities change in response to heat shock or dual stress. These data and supportive experimental evidence point to reasons for survival of the mutant strain. By using alternative respiratory mechanisms, these cells experience less of the oxidative stress that proves damaging to wild type cells. Of central importance, mutant cells recycle limited resources during dual stress by undergoing autophagy, a process that we find utilized by both wild type and mutant cells during heat shock. Evidence points to inappropriate activation of TORC1, the central metabolic regulator, in wild type cells during dual stress, based upon behavior of an additional signaling mutant and inhibitor studies.
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Callejas-Negrete OA, Torres-Guzmán JC, Padilla-Guerrero IE, Esquivel-Naranjo U, Padilla-Ballesteros MF, García-Tapia A, Schrank A, Salazar-Solís E, Gutiérrez-Corona F, González-Hernández GA. The Adh1 gene of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae is expressed during insect colonization and required for full virulence. Microbiol Res 2015; 172:57-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Löser C, Urit T, Bley T. Perspectives for the biotechnological production of ethyl acetate by yeasts. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 98:5397-415. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-5765-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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A new variant of self-excising β-recombinase/six cassette for repetitive gene deletion and homokaryon purification in Neurospora crassa. J Microbiol Methods 2014; 100:17-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Park YC, Shaffer CEH, Bennett GN. Microbial formation of esters. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 85:13-25. [PMID: 19714327 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2170-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2009] [Revised: 07/27/2009] [Accepted: 07/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Small aliphatic esters are important natural flavor and fragrance compounds and have numerous uses as solvents and as chemical intermediates. Besides the chemical or lipase-catalyzed formation of esters from alcohols and organic acids, small volatile esters are made by several biochemical routes in microbes. This short review will cover the biosynthesis of esters from acyl-CoA and alcohol condensation, from oxidation of hemiacetals formed from aldehydes and alcohols, and from the insertion of oxygen adjacent to the carbonyl group in a straight chain or cyclic ketone by Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases. The physiological role of the ester-forming reactions can allow degradation of ketones for use as a carbon source and may play a role in detoxification of aldehydes or recycling cofactors. The enzymes catalyzing each of these processes have been isolated and characterized, and a number of genes encoding the proteins from various microbes have been cloned and functionally expressed. The use of these ester-forming organisms or recombinant organisms expressing the appropriate genes as biocatalysts in biotechnology to make specific esters and chiral lactones has been studied in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Cheol Park
- Department of General Education, Kookmin University, Seoul, South Korea
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Cea G, Wilson L, Bolívar JM, Markovits A, Illanes A. Effect of chain length on the activity of free and immobilized alcohol dehydrogenase towards aliphatic alcohols. Enzyme Microb Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2008.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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