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Paschinger K, Vanbeselaere J, Wilson IBH. Analysis of Caenorhabditis Protein Glycosylation. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2762:123-138. [PMID: 38315363 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3666-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Glycoproteins result from post-translational modification of proteins by glycans attached to certain side chains, with possible heterogeneity due to different structures being possible at the same glycosylation site.In contrast to the mammalian systems, analysis of invertebrate glycans presents a challenge in analysis as there exist unfamiliar epitopes and a high degree of structural and isomeric variation between different species-Caenorhabditis elegans is no exception. Simple screening using lectins and antibodies can yield hints regarding which glycan epitopes are present in wild-type and mutant strains, but detailed analysis is necessary for determining more exact glycomic information. Here, our analytical approach is to analyze N- and O-glycans involving "off-line" RP-HPLC MALDI-TOF MS/MS. Enrichment and labeling steps facilitate the analysis of single structures and provide isomeric separation. Thereby, the "simple" worm expresses over 200 N-glycan structures varying depending on culture conditions or the genetic background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Paschinger
- Institut für Biochemie, Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jorick Vanbeselaere
- Institut für Biochemie, Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Institut für Biochemie, Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria.
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McCune S, Khwajazada S, Yerabandi N, Bode L, Belfort M, Todd D, Perrin MT. The Influence of Oligosaccharides when Measuring Lactose and Total Carbohydrates in Human Milk and Comparison of Methods. J Nutr 2023; 153:2117-2124. [PMID: 37149285 PMCID: PMC10375504 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding how human milk impacts growth requires valid analytical methods for quantifying the composition. Lactose, the most abundant constituent in human milk and a predominant source of energy, is often assessed using methods borrowed from the bovine dairy industry. However, the carbohydrate matrices of bovine and human milk are quite different, especially as they relate to human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), each with a terminal lactose unit that may influence analytical methods. OBJECTIVES Our goals were to determine the extent to which HMOs influence common analytical methods for measuring carbohydrates in human milk and to compare common methods for measuring lactose. METHODS Two sets of experiments were performed. In the first set, native and HMO-spiked human milk samples (n = 16 each) were assessed and compared using 4 methods: AOAC 2006.06 (based on the Megazyme enzymatic assay), BioVision enzymatic assay, ultraperformance LC with MS, and infrared analysis. In the second set, human milk samples (n = 20) were assessed using 2 methods approved for measuring lactose in bovine milk: AOAC 984.22 that uses high-performance LC and refractive index detection and AOAC 2006.06 prepared using both volume and weighted dilutions. RESULTS Native and HMO-spiked samples were not significantly different in lactose using AOAC 2006.06 and ultraperformance LC with MS but were significantly different using BioVision (mean difference = 0.2 g/dL; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.4; P = 0.005). Total carbohydrate measurements assessed using infrared were also higher after HMO spiking (mean difference = 0.4 g/dL; 95% CI: 0.3, 0.6; P < 0.001). Only AOAC methods 984.22 and 2006.06 for measuring lactose were very highly correlated (r > 0.90, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS AOAC methods 984.22 and 2006.06 are comparable for measuring lactose in human milk and are not influenced by HMOs. HMOs influence other enzymatic methods as well as infrared analysis, which leads to an overestimate of energy values. J Nutr 2023;x:xx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney McCune
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Sadaf Khwajazada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Mother-Milk-Infant Center of Research Excellence, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Nikhila Yerabandi
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Mother-Milk-Infant Center of Research Excellence, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Lars Bode
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Mother-Milk-Infant Center of Research Excellence, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Mandy Belfort
- Department of Pediatric Newborn Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Daniel Todd
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Maryanne T Perrin
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States.
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Paschinger K, Wöls F, Yan S, Jin C, Vanbeselaere J, Dutkiewicz Z, Arcalis E, Malzl D, Wilson IBH. N-glycan antennal modifications are altered in Caenorhabditis elegans lacking the HEX-4 N-acetylgalactosamine-specific hexosaminidase. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:103053. [PMID: 36813232 PMCID: PMC10060765 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.103053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple organisms are often considered to have simple glycomes, but plentiful paucimannosidic and oligomannosidic glycans overshadow the less abundant N-glycans with highly variable core and antennal modifications; Caenorhabditis elegans is no exception. By use of optimized fractionation and assessing wildtype in comparison to mutant strains lacking either the HEX-4 or HEX-5 β-N-acetylgalactosaminidases, we conclude that the model nematode has a total N-glycomic potential of 300 verified isomers. Three pools of glycans were analyzed for each strain: either PNGase F released and eluted from a reversed-phase C18 resin with either water or 15% methanol or PNGase Ar released. While the water-eluted fractions were dominated by typical paucimannosidic and oligomannosidic glycans and the PNGase Ar-released pools by glycans with various core modifications, the methanol-eluted fractions contained a huge range of phosphorylcholine-modified structures with up to three antennae, sometimes with four N-acetylhexosamine residues in series. There were no major differences between the C. elegans wildtype and hex-5 mutant strains, but the hex-4 mutant strains displayed altered sets of methanol-eluted and PNGase Ar-released pools. In keeping with the specificity of HEX-4, there were more glycans capped with N-acetylgalactosamine in the hex-4 mutants, as compared with isomeric chito-oligomer motifs in the wildtype. Considering that fluorescence microscopy showed that a HEX-4::enhanced GFP fusion protein colocalizes with a Golgi tracker, we conclude that HEX-4 plays a significant role in late-stage Golgi processing of N-glycans in C. elegans. Furthermore, finding more "parasite-like" structures in the model worm may facilitate discovery of glycan-processing enzymes occurring in other nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Florian Wöls
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
| | - Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria; Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität, Wien, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Elsa Arcalis
- Department für angewandte Genetik und Zellbiologie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
| | - Daniel Malzl
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria.
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Wahba MI. Glutaraldehyde-copper gelled chitosan beads: Characterization and utilization as covalent immobilizers. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
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Wilson IBH, Yan S, Jin C, Dutkiewicz Z, Rendić D, Palmberger D, Schnabel R, Paschinger K. Increasing Complexity of the N-Glycome During Caenorhabditis Development. Mol Cell Proteomics 2023; 22:100505. [PMID: 36717059 PMCID: PMC7614267 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2023.100505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Caenorhabditis elegans is a frequently employed genetic model organism and has been the object of a wide range of developmental, genetic, proteomic, and glycomic studies. Here, using an off-line MALDI-TOF-MS approach, we have analyzed the N-glycans of mixed embryos and liquid- or plate-grown L4 larvae. Of the over 200 different annotatable N-glycan structures, variations between the stages as well as the mode of cultivation were observed. While the embryonal N-glycome appears less complicated overall, the liquid- and plate-grown larvae differ especially in terms of methylation of bisecting fucose, α-galactosylation of mannose, and di-β-galactosylation of core α1,6-fucose. Furthermore, we analyzed the O-glycans by LC-electrospray ionization-MS following β-elimination; especially the embryonal O-glycomes included a set of phosphorylcholine-modified structures, previously not shown to exist in nematodes. However, the set of glycan structures cannot be clearly correlated with levels of glycosyltransferase transcripts in developmental RNA-Seq datasets, but there is an indication for coordinated expression of clusters of potential glycosylation-relevant genes. Thus, there are still questions to be answered in terms of how and why a simple nematode synthesizes such a diverse glycome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria.
| | - Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria; Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien, Wien, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | - Dubravko Rendić
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
| | | | - Ralf Schnabel
- Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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Zhou T, Hu Y, Yan X, Cui J, Wang Y, Luo F, Yuan Y, Yu Z, Zhou Y. Molecular Cloning and Characterization of a Novel Exo-β-1,3-Galactanase from Penicillium oxalicum sp. 68. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 32:1064-1071. [PMID: 35879293 PMCID: PMC9628948 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2204.04012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Arabinogalactans have diverse biological properties and can be used as pharmaceutical agents. Most arabinogalactans are composed of β-(1→3)-galactan, so it is particularly important to identify β-1,3-galactanases that can selectively degrade them. In this study, a novel exo-β-1,3-galactanase, named PoGal3, was screened from Penicillium oxalicum sp. 68, and hetero-expressed in P. pastoris GS115 as a soluble protein. PoGal3 belongs to glycoside hydrolase family 43 (GH43) and has a 1,356-bp gene length that encodes 451 amino acids residues. To study the enzymatic properties and substrate selectivity of PoGal3, β-1,3-galactan (AG-P-I) from larch wood arabinogalactan (LWAG) was prepared and characterized by HPLC and NMR. Using AG-P-I as substrate, purified PoGal3 exhibited an optimal pH of 5.0 and temperature of 40°C. We also discovered that Zn2+ had the strongest promoting effect on enzyme activity, increasing it by 28.6%. Substrate specificity suggests that PoGal3 functions as an exo-β-1,3-galactanase, with its greatest catalytic activity observed on AG-P-I. Hydrolytic products of AG-P-I are mainly composed of galactose and β-1,6-galactobiose. In addition, PoGal3 can catalyze hydrolysis of LWAG to produce galacto-oligomers. PoGal3 is the first enzyme identified as an exo-β-1,3-galactanase that can be used in building glycan blocks of crucial glycoconjugates to assess their biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, P.R. China
| | - Yanbo Hu
- School of Food Sciences and Engineering, Chang Chun University, Changchun 130022, P.R. China
| | - Xuecui Yan
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Jing Cui
- Central Laboratory, Changchun Normal University, Changchun Jilin province, P.R. China
| | - Yibing Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Feng Luo
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Ye Yuan
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Zhenxiang Yu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, P.R. China,Corresponding authors Y. Zhou Phone/Fax: +86-431-85098212 E-mail:
| | - Yifa Zhou
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, P.R. China,
Z. Yu Phone: +86-431-85098212 Fax: +86-431-85098212 E-mail:
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Gila BC, Antal K, Birkó Z, Keserű JS, Pócsi I, Emri T. Strategies Shaping the Transcription of Carbohydrate-Active Enzyme Genes in Aspergillus nidulans. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8010079. [PMID: 35050018 PMCID: PMC8780418 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the coordinated regulation of the hundreds of carbohydrate-active enzyme (CAZyme) genes occurring in the genomes of fungi has great practical importance. We recorded genome-wide transcriptional changes of Aspergillus nidulans cultivated on glucose, lactose, or arabinogalactan, as well as under carbon-starved conditions. We determined both carbon-stress-specific changes (weak or no carbon source vs. glucose) and carbon-source-specific changes (one type of culture vs. all other cultures). Many CAZyme genes showed carbon-stress-specific and/or carbon-source-specific upregulation on arabinogalactan (138 and 62 genes, respectively). Besides galactosidase and arabinan-degrading enzyme genes, enrichment of cellulolytic, pectinolytic, mannan, and xylan-degrading enzyme genes was observed. Fewer upregulated genes, 81 and 107 carbon stress specific, and 6 and 16 carbon source specific, were found on lactose and in carbon-starved cultures, respectively. They were enriched only in galactosidase and xylosidase genes on lactose and rhamnogalacturonanase genes in both cultures. Some CAZyme genes (29 genes) showed carbon-source-specific upregulation on glucose, and they were enriched in β-1,4-glucanase genes. The behavioral ecological background of these characteristics was evaluated to comprehensively organize our knowledge on CAZyme production, which can lead to developing new strategies to produce enzymes for plant cell wall saccharification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barnabás Cs. Gila
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (B.C.G.); (I.P.)
- Doctoral School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Károly Antal
- Department of Zoology, Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, Eszterházy tér 1, 3300 Eger, Hungary;
| | - Zsuzsanna Birkó
- Department of Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (Z.B.); (J.S.K.)
| | - Judit Sz. Keserű
- Department of Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (Z.B.); (J.S.K.)
| | - István Pócsi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (B.C.G.); (I.P.)
| | - Tamás Emri
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (B.C.G.); (I.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Enzymatic degradation of xyloglucans by Aspergillus species: a comparative view of this genus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:2701-2711. [PMID: 33760931 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11236-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus species are closely associated with humanity through fermentation, infectious disease, and mycotoxin contamination of food. Members of this genus produce various enzymes to degrade plant polysaccharides, including starch, cellulose, xylan, and xyloglucan. This review focus on the machinery of the xyloglucan degradation using glycoside hydrolases, such as xyloglucanases, isoprimeverose-producing oligoxyloglucan hydrolases, and α-xylosidases, in Aspergillus species. Some xyloglucan degradation-related glycoside hydrolases are well conserved in this genus; however, other enzymes are not. Cooperative actions of these glycoside hydrolases are crucial for xyloglucan degradation in Aspergillus species. KEY POINTS: •Xyloglucan degradation-related enzymes of Aspergillus species are reviewed. •Each Aspergillus species possesses a different set of glycoside hydrolases. •The machinery of xyloglucan degradation of A. oryzae is overviewed.
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9
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de Jesus LFMC, Guimarães LHS. Production of β-galactosidase by Trichoderma sp. through solid-state fermentation targeting the recovery of galactooligosaccharides from whey cheese. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 130:865-877. [PMID: 32741059 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Optimization of β-galactosidase production by Trichoderma sp. under solid-state fermentation using wheat bran as solid substrate through an experimental design and its application targeting the recovery of galactooligosaccharides (GOS) from whey cheese. METHODS AND RESULTS The β-galactosidase production by Trichoderma sp. increased 2·3-fold (2·67 U g-1 of substrate) culturing the fungus at 30°C for 187 h, at an inoculum of 105 spores per ml, and a 1 : 1·65 (w/v) ratio of wheat bran to tap water. The best enzyme activity was obtained at 55°C and pH 4·5. The catalytic activity was maintained for up to 180 min incubating at 35-45°C, and above 50% at acidic or alkaline pH for up to 24 h. It also presented resistance to chemical compounds. β-galactosidase catalysed the hydrolysis of the lactose and the transgalactosylation reaction leading to the production of GOS. CONCLUSION Trichoderma sp. produced β-galactosidase with transgalactosylation activity that may be used to recover GOS, products with high added value, from whey cheese. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY β-galactosidases are used in different industrial sectors. Therefore, the Trichoderma β-galactosidase is a promising alternative for the production of GOS as prebiotic from the dairy effluents, contributing to the reduction in the environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F M C de Jesus
- Instituto de Química de Araraquara-UNESP, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - L H S Guimarães
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Kalathinathan P, Kodiveri Muthukaliannan G. A statistical approach for enhanced production of β-galactosidase from Paracoccus sp. and synthesis of galacto-oligosaccharides. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2020; 65:811-822. [DOI: 10.1007/s12223-020-00791-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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11
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Vanbeselaere J, Jin C, Eckmair B, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Sulfated and sialylated N-glycans in the echinoderm Holothuria atra reflect its marine habitat and phylogeny. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:3159-3172. [PMID: 31969392 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the earliest deuterostomes, the echinoderms are an evolutionary important group of ancient marine animals. Within this phylum, the holothuroids (sea cucumbers) are known to produce a wide range of glycoconjugate biopolymers with apparent benefits to health; therefore, they are of economic and culinary interest throughout the world. Other than their highly modified glycosaminoglycans (e.g. fucosylated chondroitin sulfate and fucoidan), nothing is known about their protein-linked glycosylation. Here we used multistep N-glycan fractionation to efficiently separate anionic and neutral N-glycans before analyzing the N-glycans of the black sea cucumber (Holothuria atra) by MS in combination with enzymatic and chemical treatments. These analyses showed the presence of various fucosylated, phosphorylated, sialylated, and multiply sulfated moieties as modifications of oligomannosidic, hybrid, and complex-type N-glycans. The high degree of sulfation and fucosylation parallels the modifications observed previously on holothuroid glycosaminoglycans. Compatible with its phylogenetic position, H. atra not only expresses vertebrate motifs such as sulfo- and sialyl-Lewis A epitopes but displays a high degree of anionic substitution of its glycans, as observed in other marine invertebrates. Thus, as for other echinoderms, the phylum- and order-specific aspects of this species' N-glycosylation reveal both invertebrate- and vertebrate-like features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorick Vanbeselaere
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, Göteborg University, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Barbara Eckmair
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Katharina Paschinger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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Mano J, Liu N, Hammond JH, Currie DH, Stephanopoulos G. Engineering Yarrowia lipolytica for the utilization of acid whey. Metab Eng 2019; 57:43-50. [PMID: 31562926 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2019.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Acid whey, a byproduct in cheese and yogurt production, demands high costs in disposal at large quantities. Nonetheless, it contains abundant sugars and nutrients that can potentially be utilized by microorganisms. Here we report a novel platform technology that converts acid whey into value-added products using Yarrowia lipolytica. Since wild type strains do not assimilate lactose, a major carbon source in whey, a secreted β-galactosidase was introduced. Additionally, to accelerate galactose metabolism, we overexpressed the relevant native four genes of the Leloir pathway. The engineered strain could achieve rapid total conversion of all carbon sources in acid whey, producing 6.61 g/L of fatty acids (FAs) with a yield of 0.146 g-FAs/g-substrates. Further engineering to introduce an omega-3 desaturase enabled the synthesis of α-linolenic acid from acid whey, producing 10.5 mg/gDCW within a short fermentation time. Finally, PEX10 knockout in our platform strain was shown to minimize hyphal formation in concentrated acid whey cultures, greatly improving fatty acid content. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using acid whey as a previously untapped resource for biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junichi Mano
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 2-1-12, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan
| | - Nian Liu
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - John H Hammond
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Devin H Currie
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Gregory Stephanopoulos
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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Yan S, Wang H, Schachter H, Jin C, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Ablation of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferases in Caenorhabditis induces expression of unusual intersected and bisected N-glycans. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2191-2203. [PMID: 29981898 PMCID: PMC6173287 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 06/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The modification in the Golgi of N-glycans by N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (GlcNAc-TI, MGAT1) can be considered to be a hallmark of multicellular eukaryotes as it is found in all metazoans and plants, but rarely in unicellular organisms. The enzyme is key for the normal processing of N-glycans to either complex or paucimannosidic forms, both of which are found in the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Unusually, this organism has three different GlcNAc-TI genes (gly-12, gly-13 and gly-14); therefore, a complete abolition of GlcNAc-TI activity required the generation of a triple knock-out strain. Previously, the compositions of N-glycans from this mutant were described, but no detailed structures. Using an off-line HPLC-MALDI-TOF-MS approach combined with exoglycosidase digestions and MS/MS, we reveal that the multiple hexose residues of the N-glycans of the gly-12;gly-13;gly-14 triple mutant are not just mannose, but include galactoses in three different positions (β-intersecting, β-bisecting and α-terminal) on isomeric forms of Hex4-8HexNAc2 structures; some of these structures are fucosylated and/or methylated. Thus, the N-glycomic repertoire of Caenorhabditis is even wider than expected and exhibits a large degree of plasticity even in the absence of key glycan processing enzymes from the Golgi apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria,Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien, 1210 Wien, Austria
| | - Huijie Wang
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Harry Schachter
- Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Iain B. H. Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria,To whom correspondence should be addressed:
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14
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Immobilization of β-galactosidase and α-mannosidase onto magnetic nanoparticles: A strategy for increasing the potentiality of valuable glycomic tools for glycosylation analysis and biological role determination of glycoconjugates. Enzyme Microb Technol 2018; 117:45-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2018.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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15
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Xavier JR, Ramana KV, Sharma RK. β-galactosidase: Biotechnological applications in food processing. J Food Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janifer Raj Xavier
- Food Biotechnology Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory; Defence Research and Development Organization; Mysore Karnataka India
| | - Karna Venkata Ramana
- Food Biotechnology Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory; Defence Research and Development Organization; Mysore Karnataka India
| | - Rakesh Kumar Sharma
- Defence Food Research Laboratory; Defence Research and Development Organization; Mysore Karnataka India
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16
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2013-2014. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2018; 37:353-491. [PMID: 29687922 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This review is the eighth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2014. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly- saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:353-491, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, United Kingdom
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17
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Vanbeselaere J, Yan S, Joachim A, Paschinger K, Wilson IB. The parasitic nematode Oesophagostomum dentatum synthesizes unusual glycosaminoglycan-like O-glycans. Glycobiology 2018; 28:474-481. [PMID: 29757381 PMCID: PMC6103433 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwy045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
O-glycosylation is probably one of the most varied sets of post-translational modifications across all organisms, but amongst the most refractory to analyze. In animals, O-xylosylation of serine residues represents the first stage in the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans, whose repeat regions are generally analyzed as fragments resulting from enzymatic or chemical degradation, whereas their core regions can be isolated by β-elimination or endo-β-xylosidase digestion. In the present study, we show that hydrazinolysis can be employed for release of glycosaminoglycan-type oligosaccharides from nematodes prior to fluorescent labeling with 2-aminopyridine. While various [HexNAcHexA]nGal2Xyl oligosaccharides were isolated from the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, more unusual glycosaminoglycan-type glycans were found to be present in the porcine parasite Oesophagostomum dentatum. In this case, as judged by MS/MS before and after hydrofluoric acid or β-galactosidase digestion, core sequences with extra galactose and phosphorylcholine residues were detected as [(±PC)HexNAcHexA]n(±PC)Galβ3-(±Galβ4)Galβ4Xyl. Thus, hydrazinolysis and fluorescent labeling can be combined to analyze unique forms of O-xylosylation, including new examples of zwitterionic glycan modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorick Vanbeselaere
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, 1190 Wien, Austria,Corresponding author: , Tel: +43-1-47654-77222; Fax: +43-1-47654-77276
| | - Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, 1190 Wien, Austria,Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität, 1210 Wien, Austria
| | - Anja Joachim
- Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität, 1210 Wien, Austria
| | | | - Iain B.H. Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, 1190 Wien, Austria
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18
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Adamíková J, Antošová M, Polakovič M. A Method of Early Phase Selection of Carrier for Aspergillus Oryzae β
-Galactosidase Immobilization for Galactooligosaccharides Production. Biotechnol J 2018; 14:e1800120. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201800120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Adamíková
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering; Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering; Slovak University of Technology; Radlinského 9 812 37 Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Monika Antošová
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering; Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering; Slovak University of Technology; Radlinského 9 812 37 Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Milan Polakovič
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering; Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering; Slovak University of Technology; Radlinského 9 812 37 Bratislava Slovakia
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19
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Yan S, Vanbeselaere J, Jin C, Blaukopf M, Wöls F, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Core Richness of N-Glycans of Caenorhabditis elegans: A Case Study on Chemical and Enzymatic Release. Anal Chem 2017; 90:928-935. [PMID: 29182268 PMCID: PMC5757221 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Despite years of research, the glycome of the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is still not fully understood. Certainly, data over the years have indicated that this organism synthesizes unusual N-glycans with a range of galactose and fucose modifications on the Man2-3GlcNAc2 core region. Previously, up to four fucose residues were detected on its N-glycans, despite these lacking the fucosylated antennae typical of many other eukaryotes; some of these fucose residues are capped with hexose residues as shown by the studies of us and others. There have, though, been contrasting reports regarding the maximal number of fucose substitutions in C. elegans, which in part may be due to different methodological approaches, including use of either peptide:N-glycosidases F and A (PNGase F and A) or anhydrous hydrazine to cleave the N-glycans from glycopeptides. Here we compare the use of hydrazine with that of a new enzyme (rice PNGase Ar) and show that both enable release of glycans with more sugar residues on the proximal GlcNAc than previously resolved. By use of exoglycosidase sequencing, in conjunction with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS/MS), we now reveal that actually up to five fucose residues modify the core region of C. elegans N-glycans and that the α1,3-fucose on the reducing terminus can be substituted by an α-linked galactose. Thus, traditional PNGase F and A release may be insufficient for release of the more highly core-modified N-glycans, especially those occurring in C. elegans, but novel enzymes can compete against chemical methods in terms of safety, ease of cleanup, and quality of resulting glycomic data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
| | | | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs Universitet , 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Markus Blaukopf
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Florian Wöls
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
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20
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Rico‐Díaz A, Ramírez‐Escudero M, Vizoso‐Vázquez Á, Cerdán ME, Becerra M, Sanz‐Aparicio J. Structural features of
Aspergillus niger
β‐galactosidase define its activity against glycoside linkages. FEBS J 2017; 284:1815-1829. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.14083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Rico‐Díaz
- Grupo EXPRELA Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Departamento de Bioloxía Facultade de Ciencias Universidade da Coruña Spain
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology Institute of Physical‐Chemistry Rocasolano CSIC Madrid Spain
| | - Mercedes Ramírez‐Escudero
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology Institute of Physical‐Chemistry Rocasolano CSIC Madrid Spain
| | - Ángel Vizoso‐Vázquez
- Grupo EXPRELA Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Departamento de Bioloxía Facultade de Ciencias Universidade da Coruña Spain
| | - M. Esperanza Cerdán
- Grupo EXPRELA Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Departamento de Bioloxía Facultade de Ciencias Universidade da Coruña Spain
| | - Manuel Becerra
- Grupo EXPRELA Centro de Investigacións Científicas Avanzadas (CICA) Departamento de Bioloxía Facultade de Ciencias Universidade da Coruña Spain
| | - Julia Sanz‐Aparicio
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology Institute of Physical‐Chemistry Rocasolano CSIC Madrid Spain
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21
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Niu D, Tian X, Mchunu NP, Jia C, Singh S, Liu X, Prior BA, Lu F. Biochemical characterization of three Aspergillus niger β-galactosidases. ELECTRON J BIOTECHN 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2017.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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22
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Sun H, Bankefa OE, Ijeoma IO, Miao L, Zhu T, Li Y. Systematic assessment of Pichia pastoris system for optimized β -galactosidase production. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2017; 2:113-120. [PMID: 29062968 PMCID: PMC5636950 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hongbing Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Olufemi Emmanuel Bankefa
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Ijeoma Onyinyechi Ijeoma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
| | - Liangtian Miao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Taicheng Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yin Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
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23
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Park JH, Jin JH, Lim MS, An HJ, Kim JW, Lee GM. Proteomic Analysis of Host Cell Protein Dynamics in the Culture Supernatants of Antibody-Producing CHO Cells. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44246. [PMID: 28281648 PMCID: PMC5345005 DOI: 10.1038/srep44246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the most common cell line used for the production of therapeutic proteins including monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Host cell proteins (HCPs), secreted and released from lysed cells, accumulate extracellularly during the cultures of recombinant CHO (rCHO) cells, potentially impairing product quality. In an effort to maintain good mAb quality during the cultures, HCPs accumulated extracellularly in batch and fed-batch cultures of a mAb-producing rCHO cell line were identified and quantified by nanoflow liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, followed by their gene ontology and functional analysis. Due to higher cell concentration and longer culture duration, more HCPs were identified and quantitated in fed-batch culture (2145 proteins identified and 1673 proteins quantified) than in batch culture (1934 proteins identified and 1486 proteins quantified). Clustering analysis of HCPs showed that the concentration profiles of HCPs affecting mAb quality (Lgmn, Ctsd, Gbl1, and B4galt1) correlated with changes in mAb quality attributes such as aggregation, charge variants, and N-glycosylation during the cultures. Taken together, the dataset of HCPs obtained in this study provides insights into determining the appropriate target proteins to be removed during both the cultures and purification steps for ensuring good mAb quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Hyoung Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hwa Jin
- New Drug Development Center, 123 Osongsaengmyeng-ro, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung Sin Lim
- New Drug Development Center, 123 Osongsaengmyeng-ro, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Joo An
- Graduate School of Analytical Science &Technology, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Won Kim
- New Drug Development Center, 123 Osongsaengmyeng-ro, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyun Min Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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24
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Abstract
N-glycans from invertebrates and protists have often unusual structures which present analytical challenges. Both core and antennal modifications can be quite different from the more familiar vertebrate glycan motifs; thereby, contrary to the concept that "simple" organisms have "simple" N-glycans, rather complex oligosaccharides structures, including zwitterionic and anionic ones, have been found in a range of species. Thus, to facilitate the optimized elucidation of the maximal possible range of structures, the analytical workflow for glycomics of these organisms should include sequential release and fractionation steps. Peptide:N-glycosidase F is sufficient to isolate N-glycans from fungi and some protists, but in most invertebrates core α1,3-fucose is present, so release of the glycans from glycopeptides with peptide:N-glycosidases A is required. Subsequent solid-phase extraction with graphitized carbon and reversed phase resins enables different classes of N-glycans to be separated prior to high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Depending on the types and numbers of glycans present, either reversed- or normal-phase HPLC (or both in series) enable even single isomeric or isobaric structures to be separated prior to MALDI-TOF MS and MS/MS. The use of enzymatic or chemical treatments allows further insights to be gained, although some glycan modifications (especially methylation) are resistant. Using a battery of methods, sometimes up to 100 structures from a single organism can be assigned, a complexity which raises evolutionary questions regarding the function of these glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Hykollari
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Paschinger
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Eckmair
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
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25
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Jiménez-Castells C, Vanbeselaere J, Kohlhuber S, Ruttkowski B, Joachim A, Paschinger K. Gender and developmental specific N-glycomes of the porcine parasite Oesophagostomum dentatum. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1861:418-430. [PMID: 27751954 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The porcine nodule worm Oesophagostomum dentatum is a strongylid class V nematode rather closely related to the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. However, in contrast to the non-parasitic C. elegans, the parasitic O. dentatum is an obligate sexual organism, which makes both a gender and developmental glycomic comparison possible. METHODS Different enzymatic and chemical methods were used to release N-glycans from male and female O. dentatum as well as from L3 and L4 larvae. Glycans were analysed by MALDI-TOF MS after either 2D-HPLC (normal then reversed phase) or fused core RP-HPLC. RESULTS Whereas the L3 N-glycome was simpler and more dominated by phosphorylcholine-modified structures, the male and female worms express a wide range of core fucosylated N-glycans with up to three fucose residues. Seemingly, simple methylated paucimannosidic structures can be considered 'male', while methylation of fucosylated glycans was more pronounced in females. On the other hand, while many of the fucosylated paucimannosidic glycans are identical with examples from other nematode species, but simpler than the tetrafucosylated glycans of C. elegans, there is a wide range of phosphorylcholine-modified glycans with extended HexNAc2-4PC2-4 motifs not observed in our previous studies on other nematodes. CONCLUSION The interspecies tendency of class V nematodes to share most, but not all, N-glycans applies also to O. dentatum; furthermore, we establish, for the first time in a parasitic nematode, that glycomes vary upon development and sexual differentiation. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Unusual methylated, core fucosylated and phosphorylcholine-containing N-glycans vary between stages and genders in a parasitic nematode.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sonja Kohlhuber
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Bärbel Ruttkowski
- Institut für Parasitologie, Department für Pathobiologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität, A-1210 Wien, Austria
| | - Anja Joachim
- Institut für Parasitologie, Department für Pathobiologie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität, A-1210 Wien, Austria
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26
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Yan S, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Comparison of RP-HPLC modes to analyse the N-glycome of the free-living nematode Pristionchus pacificus. Electrophoresis 2016; 36:1314-29. [PMID: 25639343 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pristionchus pacificus is a free-living nematode increasingly used as an organism for comparison to the more familiar model Caenorhabditis elegans. In this study, we examined the N-glycans of this organism isolated after serial release with peptide:N-glycosidases F and A; after fluorescent labelling with 2-aminopyridine, chromatographic fractionation by three types of RP-HPLC (with either classical C18, fused core C18 or alkylamide-bonded phases) followed by mass spectrometric analyses revealed key features of its N-glycome. In addition to paucimannosidic and oligomannosidic glycans typical of invertebrates, N-glycans with two core fucose residues were detected. Furthermore, a range of glycans carrying up to three phosphorylcholine residues was observed whereas, unlike C. elegans, no tetrafucosylated N-glycans were detected. Structures with three fucose residues, unusual methylation of core α1,3-fucose or with galactosylated fucose motifs were found in low amounts; these features may correlate with a different ensemble or expression of glycosyltransferase genes as compared to C. elegans. From an analytical perspective, both the alkylamide RP-amide and fused core C18 columns, as compared to a classical C18 material, offer advantages in terms of resolution and of elution properties, as some minor pyridylamino-labelled glycans (e.g. those carrying phosphorylcholine) appear in earlier fractions and so potential losses of such structures due to insufficient gradient length can be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Austria
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27
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Analysis of zwitterionic and anionic N-linked glycans from invertebrates and protists by mass spectrometry. Glycoconj J 2016; 33:273-83. [PMID: 26899268 PMCID: PMC4891362 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-016-9650-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Glycomic analyses over the years have revealed that non-vertebrate eukaryotes express oligosaccharides with inorganic and zwitterionic modifications which are either occurring in different contexts as compared to, or are absent from, mammals. Examples of anionic N-glycans (carrying sulphate or phosphate) are known from amoebae, fungi, molluscs and insects, while zwitterionic modifications by phosphorylcholine, phosphoethanolamine and aminoethylphosphonate occur on N-, O- and lipid-linked glycans from trichomonads, annelids, fungi, molluscs, insects, cestodes and nematodes. For detection of zwitterionic and anionic glycans, mass spectrometry has been a key method, but their ionic character affects the preparation and purification; therefore, as part of a glycomic strategy, the possibility of their presence must be considered in advance. On the other hand, their ionisation and fragmentation in positive and negative ion mode mass spectrometry as well as specific chemical or enzymatic treatments can prove diagnostic to their analysis. In our laboratory, we combine solid-phase extraction, reversed and normal phase HPLC, MALDI-TOF MS, exoglycosidase digests and hydrofluoric acid treatment to reveal N-glycans modified with anionic and zwitterionic moieties in a wide range of organisms. It is to be anticipated that, as more species are glycomically analysed, zwitterionic and anionic modifications of N-glycans will prove rather widespread. This knowledge is - in the longer term - then the basis for understanding the function of this cornucopia of glycan modifications.
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28
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Yan S, Jin C, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Comparisons of Caenorhabditis Fucosyltransferase Mutants Reveal a Multiplicity of Isomeric N-Glycan Structures. J Proteome Res 2015; 14:5291-305. [PMID: 26538210 PMCID: PMC4673604 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown a remarkable degree of plasticity in the N-glycome of the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans; ablation of glycosylation-relevant genes can result in radically altered N-glycan profiles despite only minor biological phenotypic effects. Up to four fucose residues and five different linkages of fucose are known on the N-glycans of C. elegans. Due to the complexity in the wild type, we established three mutant strains defective in two core fucosyltransferases each (fut-1;fut-6, fut-1;fut-8, and fut-6;fut-8). Enzymatically released N-glycans were subject to HPLC and MALDI-TOF MS/MS, in combination with various treatments, to verify structural details. The N-glycome of the fut-1;fut-6 mutant was the most complex of the three double-mutant strains due to the extension of the core α1,6-fucose as well as the presence of fucose on the bisecting galactose. In contrast, maximally two fucoses were found on N-glycans of the fut-1;fut-8 and fut-6;fut-8 strains. The different locations and capping of fucose meant that up to 13 isomeric structures, many highly galactosylated, were determined for some single masses. These data not only show the high variability of the N-glycomic capacity of a "simple" nematode but also exemplify the need for multiple approaches to reveal individual glycan structures within complex invertebrate glycomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Yan
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs Universitet , 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur , 1190 Wien, Austria
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Eckmair B, Jin C, Abed-Navandi D, Paschinger K. Multistep Fractionation and Mass Spectrometry Reveal Zwitterionic and Anionic Modifications of the N- and O-glycans of a Marine Snail. Mol Cell Proteomics 2015; 15:573-97. [PMID: 26598642 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m115.051573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Various studies in the past have revealed that molluscs can produce a wide range of rather complex N-glycan structures, which vary from those occurring in other invertebrate animals; particularly methylated glycans have been found in gastropods, and there are some reports of anionic glycans in bivalves. Due to the high variability in terms of previously described structures and methodologies, it is a major challenge to establish glycomic workflows that yield the maximum amount of detailed structural information from relatively low quantities of sample. In this study, we apply differential release with peptide:N-glycosidases F and A followed by solid-phase extraction on graphitized carbon and reversed-phase materials to examine the glycome of Volvarina rubella (C. B. Adams, 1845), a margin snail of the clade Neogastropoda. The resulting four pools of N-glycans were fractionated on a fused core RP-HPLC column and subject to MALDI-TOF MS and MS/MS in conjunction with chemical and enzymatic treatments. In addition, selected N-glycan fractions, as well as O-glycans released by β-elimination, were analyzed by porous graphitized carbon-LC-MS and MS(n). This comprehensive approach enabled us to determine a number of novel modifications of protein-linked glycans, including N-methyl-2-aminoethylphosphonate on mannose and N-acetylhexosamine residues, core β1,3-linked mannose, zwitterionic moieties on core Galβ1,4Fuc motifs, additional mannose residues on oligomannosidic glycans, and bisubstituted antennal fucose; furthermore, typical invertebrate N-glycans with sulfate and core fucose residues are present in this gastropod.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Eckmair
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- §Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | - Katharina Paschinger
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, 1190 Wien, Austria;
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Kurz S, Aoki K, Jin C, Karlsson NG, Tiemeyer M, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Targeted release and fractionation reveal glucuronylated and sulphated N- and O-glycans in larvae of dipteran insects. J Proteomics 2015; 126:172-88. [PMID: 26047717 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are important vectors of parasitic and viral diseases with Anopheles gambiae transmitting malaria and Aedes aegypti spreading yellow and Dengue fevers. Using two different approaches (solid-phase extraction and reversed-phase or hydrophilic interaction HPLC fractionation followed by MALDI-TOF MS or permethylation followed by NSI-MS), we examined the N-glycans of both A. gambiae and A. aegypti larvae and demonstrate the presence of a range of paucimannosidic glycans as well as bi- and tri-antennary glycans, some of which are modified with fucose or with sulphate or glucuronic acid residues; the latter anionic modifications were also found on N-glycans of larvae from another dipteran species (Drosophila melanogaster). The sulphate groups are attached primarily to core α-mannose residues (especially the α1,6-linked mannose), whereas the glucuronic acid residues are linked to non-reducing β1,3-galactose. Also, O-glycans were found to possess glucuronic acid and sulphate as well as phosphoethanolamine modifications. The presence of sulphated and glucuronylated N-glycans is a novel feature in dipteran glycomes; these structures have the potential to act as additional anionic glycan ligands involved in parasite interactions with the vector host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Kurz
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Kazuhiro Aoki
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Centre, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Niclas G Karlsson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Michael Tiemeyer
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Centre, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria.
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Yan S, Brecker L, Jin C, Titz A, Dragosits M, Karlsson NG, Jantsch V, Wilson IBH, Paschinger K. Bisecting Galactose as a Feature of N-Glycans of Wild-type and Mutant Caenorhabditis elegans. Mol Cell Proteomics 2015; 14:2111-25. [PMID: 26002521 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m115.049817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The N-glycosylation of the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has proven to be highly variable and rather complex; it is an example to contradict the existing impression that "simple" organisms possess also a rather simple glycomic capacity. In previous studies in a number of laboratories, N-glycans with up to four fucose residues have been detected. However, although the linkage of three fucose residues to the N,N'-diacetylchitobiosyl core has been proven by structural and enzymatic analyses, the nature of the fourth fucose has remained uncertain. By constructing a triple mutant with deletions in the three genes responsible for core fucosylation (fut-1, fut-6 and fut-8), we have produced a nematode strain lacking products of these enzymes, but still retaining maximally one fucose residue on its N-glycans. Using mass spectrometry and HPLC in conjunction with chemical and enzymatic treatments as well as NMR, we examined a set of α-mannosidase-resistant N-glycans. Within this glycomic subpool, we can reveal that the core β-mannose can be trisubstituted and so carries not only the ubiquitous α1,3- and α1,6-mannose residues, but also a "bisecting" β-galactose, which is substoichiometrically modified with fucose or methylfucose. In addition, the α1,3-mannose can also be α-galactosylated. Our data, showing the presence of novel N-glycan modifications, will enable more targeted studies to understand the biological functions and interactions of nematode glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Yan
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Lothar Brecker
- §Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Wien, 1090 Wien, Austria
| | - Chunsheng Jin
- ¶Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Alexander Titz
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Martin Dragosits
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
| | - Niclas G Karlsson
- ¶Institutionen för Biomedicin, Göteborgs universitet, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Verena Jantsch
- ‖Department für Chromosomenbiologie, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Universität Wien, 1030 Wien, Austria
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria;
| | - Katharina Paschinger
- From the ‡Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur, 1190 Wien, Austria
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Paschinger K, Wilson IBH. Two types of galactosylated fucose motifs are present on N-glycans of Haemonchus contortus. Glycobiology 2015; 25:585-90. [PMID: 25740940 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwv015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Glycans from the nematode Haemonchus contortus (barber pole worm), a parasite of sheep and cattle, were the first to be described to possess up to three fucose residues associated with the N,N'-diacetylchitobiosyl core, two being on the reducing-terminal proximal GlcNAc and one on the distal core GlcNAc residue. The assumption was that truncated glycans from this organism with three hexose residues have the composition Man3GlcNAc2Fuc1-3. In this study, we have performed HPLC and MALDI-TOF MS/MS in combination with selected digestions of N-glycans from Haemonchus. A dominant trifucosylated Hex3HexNAc2Fuc3 glycan was modified not only with α1,6-fucose but also with a proximal core α1,3-fucose and a galactosylated distal α1,3-fucose; thereby, only two of the hexose residues were mannose. Other N-glycans displayed galactosylation of the core α1,6-fucose, antennal fucosylation or modification with phosphorylcholine. Thus, the N-glycans of Haemonchus contain a number of potentially immunogenic glycan epitopes also found in other parasites and our proposed structures are in line with the previously defined specificity of nematode glycosyltransferases as we show that distal fucosylation and the presence of an α1,6-mannose are apparently mutually exclusive. These data are thereby of importance for engineering cell lines capable of mimicking Haemonchus-type N-glycans in the preparation of recombinant proteins as vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department für Chemie, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Wien 1190, Austria
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Dragosits M, Yan S, Razzazi-Fazeli E, Wilson IBH, Rendic D. Enzymatic properties and subtle differences in the substrate specificity of phylogenetically distinct invertebrate N-glycan processing hexosaminidases. Glycobiology 2014; 25:448-64. [PMID: 25488985 PMCID: PMC4339880 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwu132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fused lobes (FDL) hexosaminidases are the most recently genetically defined glycosidases involved in the biosynthesis of N-glycans in invertebrates, and their narrow specificity is essential for the generation of paucimannosidic N-glycans in insects. In this study, we explored the potential of FDL hexosaminidases in the utilization of different artificial and natural substrates, both as purified, native compounds or generated in vitro using various relevant glycosyltransferases. In addition to the already-known FDL enzyme from Drosophila melanogaster, we now have identified and characterized the Apis mellifera FDL homolog. The enzymatic properties of the soluble forms of the affinity-purified insect FDL enzymes, expressed in both yeast and insect cells, were compared with those of the phylogenetically distinct recombinant Caenorhabditis elegans FDL-like enzymes and the N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)-specific Caenorhabditis hexosaminidase HEX-4. In tests with a range of substrates, including natural N-glycans, we show that the invertebrate FDL(-like) enzymes are highly specific for N-acetylglucosamine attached to the α1,3-mannose, but under extreme conditions also remove other terminal GalNAc and N-acetylglucosamine residues. Recombinant FDL also proved useful in the analysis of complex mixtures of N-glycans originating from wild-type and mutant Caenorhabditis strains, thereby aiding isomeric definition of paucimannosidic and hybrid N-glycans in this organism. Furthermore, differences in activity and specificity were shown for two site-directed mutants of Drosophila FDL, compatible with the high structural similarity of chitinolytic and N-glycan degrading exohexosaminidases in insects. Our studies are another indication for the variety of structural and function aspects in the GH20 hexosaminidase family important for both catabolism and biosynthesis of glycoconjugates in eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dragosits
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna VetCore Facility for Research, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Shi Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
| | | | - Iain B H Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
| | - Dubravko Rendic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
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Rico-Díaz A, Vizoso Vázquez Á, Cerdán ME, Becerra M, Sanz-Aparicio J. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction data of β-galactosidase from Aspergillus niger. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2014; 70:1529-31. [PMID: 25372823 PMCID: PMC4231858 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x14019815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
β-Galactosidase from Aspergillus niger (An-β-Gal), belonging to the family 35 glycoside hydrolases, hydrolyzes the β-galactosidase linkages in lactose and other galactosides. It is extensively used in industry owing to its high hydrolytic activity and safety. The enzyme has been expressed in yeasts and purified by immobilized metal-ion affinity chromatography for crystallization experiments. The recombinant An-β-Gal, deglycosylated to avoid heterogeneity of the sample, has a molecular mass of 109 kDa. Rod-shaped crystals grew using PEG 3350 as the main precipitant agent. A diffraction data set was collected to 1.8 Å resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Rico-Díaz
- Grupo EXPRELA, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Molecular, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus da Zapateira, s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
- Grupo de Cristalografía Macromolecular y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química–Física Rocasolano, CSIC, Serrano 119, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ángel Vizoso Vázquez
- Grupo EXPRELA, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Molecular, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus da Zapateira, s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - M. Esperanza Cerdán
- Grupo EXPRELA, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Molecular, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus da Zapateira, s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Manuel Becerra
- Grupo EXPRELA, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Molecular, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus da Zapateira, s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Julia Sanz-Aparicio
- Grupo de Cristalografía Macromolecular y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química–Física Rocasolano, CSIC, Serrano 119, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Saburi W, M. Ueno H, Matsui H, Mori H. Acidophilic β-Galactosidase from Aspergillus niger AHU7120 with Lactose Hydrolytic Activity Under Simulated Gastric Conditions. J Appl Glycosci (1999) 2014. [DOI: 10.5458/jag.jag.jag-2013_011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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