Lichenysin production is improved in codY null Bacillus licheniformis by addition of precursor amino acids

Optimization of Medium Components for Fed-Batch Fermentation Using Central Composite Design to Enhance Lichenysin Production by Bacillus licheniformis Ali5

Lichenysin, an amphiphilic biosurfactant with structural and physicochemical properties similar to surfactin, is produced by Bacillus licheniformis. Its low toxicity, good environmental compatibility, solubilization, foaming, emulsification and detergent activities have led to a wide range of applications in agricultural biocontrol, enhanced oil recovery, foaming agents for cosmetics and detergents for household cleaning products. However, despite the extraordinary surface-active properties and potential applications of lichenysin, the number of wild bacteria found so far is relatively low. Low titers and high costs are the main limiting factors for widespread industrial applications. In this study, a factorial design was used to optimize the composition of the medium for the production of lichenysin by Bacillus licheniformis Ali5. Firstly, the solutions of carbon, nitrogen, amino acids, inorganic salts and trace elements in the medium were evaluated in flasks using a single-factor optimization method. Meanwhile, the operating conditions were optimized in the same way. Afterwards, a partial factorial design was used to investigate the effect of six variables (five medium compositions and inoculum size) on lichenysin production. Based on the results obtained, the concentrations of sucrose and ammonium nitrate and the inoculum size were considered to be important for lichenysin production. Subsequently, a full factorial design was used to optimize these three variables. The optimized medium composition were sucrose 19.8 g/L, NH4NO3 3.9 g/L, K2HPO4·3H2O 4.0 g/L, MgSO4·7H2O 0.6 g/L, FeSO4·7H2O 0.1 g/L, CaCl2 0.01 g/L, NaCl 3.0, trace elements 1.2 mL/L. Finally, the titer of lichenysin after fed-batch fermentation reached 1425.85 mg/L, which was approximately 5.5 times higher than the titer of lichenysin from the original medium. Consequently, the method was further demonstrated to be suitable for lichenysin production.

Engineering of global transcription factors in Bacillus, a genetic tool for increasing product yields: a bioprocess overview

Transcriptional factors are well studied in bacteria for their global interactions and the effects they produce at the phenotypic level. Particularly, Bacillus subtilis has been widely employed as a model Gram-positive microorganism used to characterize these network interactions. Bacillus species are currently used as efficient commercial microbial platforms to produce diverse metabolites such as extracellular enzymes, antibiotics, surfactants, industrial chemicals, heterologous proteins, among others. However, the pleiotropic effects caused by the genetic modification of specific genes that codify for global regulators (transcription factors) have not been implicated commonly from a bioprocess point of view. Recently, these strategies have attracted the attention in Bacillus species because they can have an application to increase production efficiency of certain commercial interest metabolites. In this review, we update the recent advances that involve this trend in the use of genetic engineering (mutations, deletion, or overexpression) performed to global regulators such as Spo0A, CcpA, CodY and AbrB, which can provide an advantage for the development or improvement of bioprocesses that involve Bacillus species as production platforms. Genetic networks, regulation pathways and their relationship to the development of growth stages are also discussed to correlate the interactions that occur between these regulators, which are important to consider for application in the improvement of commercial-interest metabolites. Reported yields from these products currently produced mostly under laboratory conditions and, in a lesser extent at bioreactor level, are also discussed to give valuable perspectives about their potential use and developmental level directed to process optimization at large-scale.

Bacillus licheniformis: The unexplored alternative for the anaerobic production of lipopeptide biosurfactants?

Microbial biosurfactants have attracted the attention of researchers and companies for the last decades, as they are considered promising candidates to replace chemical surfactants in numerous applications. Although in the last years, considerable advances were performed regarding strain engineering and the use of low-cost substrates in order to reduce their production costs, one of the main bottlenecks is their production at industrial scale. Conventional aerobic biosurfactant production processes result in excessive foaming, due to the use of high agitation and aeration rates necessary to increase dissolved oxygen concentration to allow microbial growth and biosurfactant production. Different approaches have been studied to overcome this problem, although with limited success. A not widely explored alternative is the development of foam-free processes through the anaerobic growth of biosurfactant-producing microorganisms. Surfactin, produced by Bacillus subtilis, is the most widely studied lipopeptide biosurfactant, and the most powerful biosurfactant known so far. Bacillus licheniformis strains produce lichenysin, a lipopeptide biosurfactant which structure is similar to surfactin. However, despite its extraordinary surface-active properties and potential applications, lichenysin has been scarcely studied. According to previous studies, B. licheniformis is better adapted to anaerobic growth than B. subtilis, and could be a good alternative for the anaerobic production of lipopeptide biosurfactants. In this review, the potential and limitations of surfactin and lichenysin production under anaerobic conditions will be analyzed, and the possibility of implementing foam-free processes for lichenysin production, in order to expand the market and applications of biosurfactants in different fields, will be discussed.

Functional Characterization of Transporters for L-Aspartate in Bacillus licheniformis

Amino acid efflux and influx transport systems play vital roles in industrial microorganisms’ cell growth and metabolism. However, although biochemically characterized, most of them remain unknown at the molecular level in Bacillus licheniformis. In this study, three proteins, namely, YdgF, YvbW, and YveA, were predicted to be involved in the active transport of L-aspartate (L-Asp). This was verified by manipulating their encoding genes. When growing in the minimal medium with L-Asp as the only carbon and nitrogen source, the growth of strains lacking proteins YdgF, YvbW, and YveA was significantly inhibited compared with the wild-type strains, while supplementing the expression of the corresponding proteins in the single-gene knockout strains could alleviate the inhibition. Upon overexpression, the recombinant proteins mediated the accumulation of L-aspartate to varying degrees. Compared with the wild-type strains, the single knockout strains of the three protein genes exhibited reduced absorption of L-aspartate. In addition, this study focused on the effects of these three proteins on the absorption of β-alanine, L-glutamate, D-serine, D-alanine, and glycine.

Research Progress of the Biosynthesis of Natural Bio-Antibacterial Agent Pulcherriminic Acid in Bacillus

Pulcherriminic acid is a cyclic dipeptide found mainly in Bacillus and yeast. Due to the ability of pulcherriminic acid to chelate Fe3+ to produce reddish brown pulcherrimin, microorganisms capable of synthesizing pulcherriminic acid compete with other microorganisms for environmental iron ions to achieve bacteriostatic effects. Therefore, studying the biosynthetic pathway and their enzymatic catalysis, gene regulation in the process of synthesis of pulcherriminic acid in Bacillus can facilitate the industrial production, and promote the wide application in food, agriculture and medicine industries. After initially discussing, this review summarizes current research on the synthesis of pulcherriminic acid by Bacillus, which includes the crystallization of key enzymes, molecular catalytic mechanisms, regulation of synthetic pathways, and methods to improve efficiency in synthesizing pulcherriminic acid and its precursors. Finally, possible applications of pulcherriminic acid in the fermented food, such as Chinese Baijiu, applying combinatorial biosynthesis will be summarized.

Microbial Biosurfactants as Key Multifunctional Ingredients for Sustainable Cosmetics

A polar head and an apolar tail chemically characterize surfactants, they show different properties and are categorized by different factors such as head charge and molecular weight. They work by reducing the surface tension between oil and water phases to facilitate the formation of one homogeneous mixture. In this respect, they represent unavoidable ingredients, their main application is in the production of detergents, one of if not the most important categories of cosmetics. Their role is very important, it should be remembered that it was precisely soaps and hygiene that defeated the main infectious diseases at the beginning of the last century. Due to their positive environmental impact, the potential uses of microbial sourced surfactants are actively investigated. These compounds are produced with different mechanisms by microorganisms in the aims to defend themselves from external threats, to improve the mobility in the environment, etc. In the cosmetic field, biosurfactants, restricted in the present work to those described above, can carry high advantages, in comparison to traditional surfactants, especially in the field of sustainable and safer approaches. Besiede this, costs still remain an obsatcle to their diffusion; in this regard, exploration of possible multifunctional actions could help to contain application costs. To highlight their features and possible multifunctional role, on the light of specific biological profiles yet underestimated, we have approached the present review work.

Control of the polymyxin analog ratio by domain swapping in the nonribosomal peptide synthetase of Paenibacillus polymyxa

Polymyxins are used as the last-line therapy against multidrug-resistant bacteria. However, their further clinical development needs to solve problems related to the presence of heterogeneous analogs, but there is still no platform or methods that can regulate the biosynthesis of polymyxin analogs. In this study, we present an approach to swap domains in the polymyxin gene cluster to regulate the production of different analogs. Following adenylation domain swapping, the proportion of polymyxin B1 increased from 41.36 to 52.90%, while that of B1-1 decreased from 18.25 to 3.09%. The ratio of polymyxin B1 and B3 following starter condensation domain swapping changed from 41.36 and 16.99 to 55.03 and 6.39%, respectively. The two domain-swapping strains produced 62.96% of polymyxin B1, 6.70% of B3 and 3.32% of B1-1. This study also revealed the presence of overflow fluxes between acetoin, 2,3-butanediol and polymyxin. To our best knowledge, this is the first report of engineering the polymyxin synthetase gene cluster in situ to regulate the relative proportions of polymyxin analogs. This research paves a way for regulating lipopeptide analogs and will facilitate the development of novel lipopeptide derivatives.

Identification of new arylamine N-acetyltransferases and enhancing 2-acetamidophenol production in Pseudomonas chlororaphis HT66

Background

2-Acetamidophenol (AAP) is an aromatic compound with the potential for antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-platelet, and anti-arthritic activities. Due to the biosynthesis of AAP is not yet fully understood, AAP is mainly produced by chemical synthesis. Currently, metabolic engineering of natural microbial pathway to produce valuable aromatic compound has remarkable advantages and exhibits attractive potential. Thus, it is of paramount importance to develop a dominant strain to produce AAP by elucidating the AAP biosynthesis pathway.

Result

In this study, the active aromatic compound AAP was first purified and identified in gene phzB disruption strain HT66ΔphzB, which was derived from Pseudomonas chlororaphis HT66. The titer of AAP in the strain HT66ΔphzB was 236.89 mg/L. Then, the genes involved in AAP biosynthesis were determined. Through the deletion of genes phzF, Nat and trpE, AAP was confirmed to have the same biosynthesis route as phenazine-1-carboxylic (PCA). Moreover, a new arylamine N-acetyltransferases (NATs) was identified and proved to be the key enzyme required for generating AAP by in vitro assay. P. chlororaphis P3, a chemical mutagenesis mutant strain of HT66, has been demonstrated to have a robust ability to produce antimicrobial phenazines. Therefore, genetic engineering, precursor addition, and culture optimization strategies were used to enhance AAP production in P. chlororaphis P3. The inactivation of phzB in P3 increased AAP production by 92.4%. Disrupting the phenazine negative regulatory genes lon and rsmE and blocking the competitive pathway gene pykA in P3 increased AAP production 2.08-fold, which also confirmed that AAP has the same biosynthesis route as PCA. Furthermore, adding 2-amidophenol to the KB medium increased AAP production by 64.6%, which suggested that 2-amidophenol is the precursor of AAP. Finally, by adding 5 mM 2-amidophenol and 2 mM Fe³⁺ to the KB medium, the production of AAP reached 1209.58 mg/L in the engineered strain P3ΔphzBΔlonΔpykAΔrsmE using a shaking-flask culture. This is the highest microbial-based AAP production achieved to date.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study clarified the biosynthesis process of AAP in Pseudomonas and provided a promising host for industrial-scale biosynthesis of AAP from renewable resources.

Metabolic Engineering of Main Transcription Factors in Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Metabolisms for Enhanced Production of Bacitracin in Bacillus licheniformis

Primary metabolism plays a key role in the synthesis of secondary metabolite. In this study, the main transcription factors in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus metabolisms (CcpA, CcpC, CcpN, CodY, TnrA, GlnR, and PhoP) were engineered to improve bacitracin yield in Bacillus licheniformis DW2, an industrial strain for bacitracin production. First, our results demonstrated that deletions of ccpC and ccpN improved ATP and NADPH supplies, and the bacitracin yields were respectively increased by 14.02% and 16.06% compared with that of DW2, while it was decreased significantly in ccpA deficient strain DW2ΔccpA. Second, excessive branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) were accumulated in codY, tnrA, and glnR deletion strains DW2ΔcodY, DW2ΔtnrA, and DW2ΔglnR, which resulted in the nitrogen catabolite repressions and reductions of bacitracin yields. Moreover, overexpression of these regulators improved intracellular BCAA supplies, and further enhanced bacitracin yields by 14.17%, 12.98%, and 16.20%, respectively. Furthermore, our results confirmed that phosphate addition reduced bacitracin synthesis capability, and bacitracin yield was improved by 15.71% in gene phop deletion strain. On the contrary, overexpression of PhoP led to a 19.40% decrease of bacitracin yield. Finally, a combinatorial engineering of these above metabolic manipulations was applied, and bacitracin yield produced by the final strain DW2-CNCTGP (Simultaneously deleting ccpC, ccpN, phop and overexpressing glnR, codY, and tnrA in DW2) reached 1014.38 U/mL, increased by 35.72% compared to DW2, and this yield was the highest bacitracin yield currently reported. Taken together, this study implied that metabolic engineering of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus metabolism regulators is an efficient strategy to enhance bacitracin production, and provided a promising B. licheniformis strain for industrial production of bacitracin.

Improving the production of a novel antifungal alteramide B in Lysobacter enzymogenes OH11 by strengthening metabolic flux and precursor supply

Lysobacter enzymogenes OH11 is currently considered to be a novel biocontrol agent for various plant fungi diseases. At present, only heat-stable antifungal factor (HSAF) has been isolated and identified in culture, although other active compounds also showed antifungal activity. In the present study, a novel active compound, alteramide B (ATB), which exhibits broad-spectrum antagonistic activity against phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes, was isolated. The genes responsible for ATB biosynthesis were also determined. In addition, a strain producing ATB with minimal HSAF production was successfully generated by redirecting metabolic flux, namely L. enzymogenes OH57. Furthermore, ATB production increased to 893.32 ± 15.57 mg/L through medium optimization and precursor supply strategy, which was 24.36-fold higher than that of 10% tryptic soy broth (36.67 ± 1.63 mg/L). Taken together, this study indicates ATB has great development value as a biopesticide because of its bioactivity and high production.