Microbial co-culturing systems: butanol production from organic wastes through consolidated bioprocessing

Effect of spo0A, sigE, sigG, and sigK disruption on butanol production and spore formation in Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum strain N1-4 (ATCC13564)

Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum strain N1-4 (ATCC13564) is a butanol-producing strain suitable for application to butanol production from cellulosic materials by co-culture with cellulolytic and thermophilic species, such as Hungateiclostridium thermocellum (synonym: Clostridium thermocellum). The optimal temperature for butanol production by strain N1-4 is 30 °C, and the strain is sensitive to a high culture temperature of 37 °C. Given that spore formation is observed at high frequency when strain N1-4 is cultivated at 37 °C, we assumed in a previous study that the initiation of sporulation is related to a decrease in butanol production. Therefore, to investigate the relationship between butanol production and spore formation, we generated strain N1-4 isolates in which genes related to spore formation were disrupted. The sporulation-related gene disruptants of spo0A, sigE, sigG, and sigK lost the ability to produce heat-resistant spores, irrespective of the culture temperature. Among the gene disruptants produced, only the spo0A disruptant lost butanol-producing ability when cultivated at 30 °C. Interestingly, the sigE disruptant maintained butanol productivity similar to that observed at 30 °C, even when cultivated at 37 °C. In addition, the sigE disruptant successfully produced butanol from Avicel cellulose by co-culture with H. thermocellum at a fermentation temperature of 37 °C.

Multi-Level Optimization and Strategies in Microbial Biotransformation of Nature Products

Continuously growing demand for natural products with pharmacological activities has promoted the development of microbial transformation techniques, thereby facilitating the efficient production of natural products and the mining of new active compounds. Furthermore, due to the shortcomings and defects of microbial transformation, it is an important scientific issue of social and economic value to improve and optimize microbial transformation technology in increasing the yield and activity of transformed products. In this review, the aspects regarding the optimization of fermentation and the cross-disciplinary strategy, leading to the microbial transformation of increased levels of the high-efficiency process from natural products of a plant or microbial origin, were discussed. Additionally, due to the increasing craving for targeted and efficient methods for detecting transformed metabolites, analytical methods based on multiomics were also discussed. Such strategies can be well exploited and applied to the production of more efficient and more natural products from microbial resources.

Microbial production of valuable chemicals by modular co-culture strategy

Nowadays, microbial synthesis has become a common way for producing valuable chemicals. Traditionally, microbial production of valuable chemicals is accomplished by a single strain. For the purpose of increasing the production titer and yield of a recombinant strain, complicated pathways and regulation layers should be fine-tuned, which also brings a heavy metabolic burden to the host. In addition, utilization of various complex and mixed substrates further interferes with the normal growth of the host strain and increases the complexity of strain engineering. As a result, modular co-culture technology, which aims to divide a target complex pathway into separate modules located at different single strains, poses an alternative solution for microbial production. Recently, modular co-culture strategy has been employed for the synthesis of different natural products. Therefore, in this review, various chemicals produced with application of co-cultivation technology are summarized, including co-culture with same species or different species, and regulation of population composition between the co-culture members. In addition, development prospects and challenges of this promising field are also addressed, and possible solution for these issues were also provided.

Resource recovery from lignocellulosic wastes via biological technologies: Advancements and prospects

Lignocellulosic wastes were recently considered as biomass resources, however, its conversion to valuable products is still immature although researchers have put lots of effort into this issue. This article reviews the key challenges of the biorefinery utilizing lignocellulosic materials and recent developments to conquer those obstacles. Available biological techniques and processes, from the pretreatments of cellulosic materials to the valorization processes, were emphasized. Biological pretreatments, including hydrolysis using microbial consortia, fungi, enzymes, engineered bacterial/fungal strains, and co-culture systems, could enhance the release of reducing sugar. Resources recovery, including biogases, ethanol, butanol, PHA, etc., from lignocellulosic materials were also discussed, while the influences of composition of lignocellulosic materials and pretreatment options, applications of co-culture system, and integrated treatments with other wastes, were described. In the review, co-culture system and metabolic engineering are emphasized as the promising biological technologies, while perspectives are provided for their future developments.

Synthetic co-culture of autotrophic Clostridium carboxidivorans and chain elongating Clostridium kluyveri monitored by flow cytometry

Syngas fermentation with acetogens is known to produce mainly acetate and ethanol efficiently. Co-cultures with chain elongating bacteria making use of these products are a promising approach to produce longer-chain alcohols. Synthetic co-cultures with identical initial cell concentrations of Clostridium carboxidivorans and Clostridium kluyveri were studied in batch-operated stirred-tank bioreactors with continuous CO/CO₂ -gassing and monitoring of the cell counts of both clostridia by flow cytometry after fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH-FC). At 800 mbar CO, chain elongation activity was observed at pH 6.0, although growth of C. kluyveri was restricted. Organic acids produced by C. kluyveri were reduced by C. carboxidivorans to the corresponding alcohols butanol and hexanol. This resulted in a threefold increase in final butanol concentration and enabled hexanol production compared with a mono-culture of C. carboxidivorans. At 100 mbar CO, growth of C. kluyveri was improved; however, the capacity of C. carboxidivorans to form alcohols was reduced. Because of the accumulation of organic acids, a constant decay of C. carboxidivorans was observed. The measurement of individual cell concentrations in co-culture established in this study may serve as an effective tool for knowledge-based identification of optimum process conditions for enhanced formation of longer-chain alcohols by clostridial co-cultures.

Modular optimization in metabolic engineering

There is an increasing demand for bioproducts produced by metabolically engineered microbes, such as pharmaceuticals, biofuels, biochemicals and other high value compounds. In order to meet this demand, modular optimization, the optimizing of subsections instead of the whole system, has been adopted to engineer cells to overproduce products. Research into modularity has focused on traditional approaches such as DNA, RNA, and protein-level modularity of intercellular machinery, by optimizing metabolic pathways for enhanced production. While research into these traditional approaches continues, limitations such as scale-up and time cost hold them back from wider use, while at the same time there is a shift to more novel methods, such as moving from episomal expression to chromosomal integration. Recently, nontraditional approaches such as co-culture systems and cell-free metabolic engineering (CFME) are being investigated for modular optimization. Co-culture modularity looks to optimally divide the metabolic burden between different hosts. CFME seeks to modularly optimize metabolic pathways in vitro, both speeding up the design of such systems and eliminating the issues associated with live hosts. In this review we will examine both traditional and nontraditional approaches for modular optimization, examining recent developments and discussing issues and emerging solutions for future research in metabolic engineering.

Microbial co-culturing strategies for the production high value compounds, a reliable framework towards sustainable biorefinery implementation - an overview

The microbial co-cultures or consortia are a natural set of microorganisms formed from different species or the same species but different strains, in which members can interact with each other. The co-culture systems have wide variety of technological applications such as the production of foods, treatment of wastewater, removal of toxic substances, environmental recovery, and all these without the need to work in sterile conditions. Therefore, the need of understanding communication mechanisms between cell-to-cell within co-culture will allow to construct and to program their biological behavior from the use of complex substrates to produce biocompounds. The technology of co-culture systems enables the development of biorefinery platforms to obtain biofuels, and high value compounds through biomass transformation by sustainable process. This review focuses on understanding the roles of consortia microbial to design and built co-culture systems to produce high value compounds in terms a sustainable biorefinery.

Using Co-Culture to Functionalize Clostridium Fermentation

Clostridium fermentations have been developed for producing butanol and other value-added chemicals, but their development is constrained by some limitations, such as relatively high substrate cost and the need to maintain an anaerobic condition. Recently, co-culture is emerging as a popular way to address these limitations by introducing a partner strain with Clostridium. Generally speaking, the co-culture strategy enables the use of a cheaper substrate, maintains the growth of Clostridium without any anaerobic treatment, improves product yields, and/or widens the product spectrum. Herein, we review recent developments of co-culture strategies involving Clostridium species according to their partner stains' functions with representative examples. We also discuss research challenges that need to be addressed for the future development of Clostridium co-cultures.

Pathway dissection, regulation, engineering and application: lessons learned from biobutanol production by solventogenic clostridia

The global energy crisis and limited supply of petroleum fuels have rekindled the interest in utilizing a sustainable biomass to produce biofuel. Butanol, an advanced biofuel, is a superior renewable resource as it has a high energy content and is less hygroscopic than other candidates. At present, the biobutanol route, employing acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation in Clostridium species, is not economically competitive due to the high cost of feedstocks, low butanol titer, and product inhibition. Based on an analysis of the physiological characteristics of solventogenic clostridia, current advances that enhance ABE fermentation from strain improvement to product separation were systematically reviewed, focusing on: (1) elucidating the metabolic pathway and regulation mechanism of butanol synthesis; (2) enhancing cellular performance and robustness through metabolic engineering, and (3) optimizing the process of ABE fermentation. Finally, perspectives on engineering and exploiting clostridia as cell factories to efficiently produce various chemicals and materials are also discussed.

Consolidated bioprocessing for butanol production of cellulolytic Clostridia: development and optimization

Butanol is an important bulk chemical, as well as a promising renewable gasoline substitute, that is commonly produced by solventogenic Clostridia. The main cost of cellulosic butanol fermentation is caused by cellulases that are required to saccharify lignocellulose, since solventogenic Clostridia cannot efficiently secrete cellulases. However, cellulolytic Clostridia can natively degrade lignocellulose and produce ethanol, acetate, butyrate and even butanol. Therefore, cellulolytic Clostridia offer an alternative to develop consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), which combines cellulase production, lignocellulose hydrolysis and co-fermentation of hexose/pentose into butanol in one step. This review focuses on CBP advances for butanol production of cellulolytic Clostridia and various synthetic biotechnologies that drive these advances. Moreover, the efforts to optimize the CBP-enabling cellulolytic Clostridia chassis are also discussed. These include the development of genetic tools, pentose metabolic engineering and the improvement of butanol tolerance. Designer cellulolytic Clostridia or consortium provide a promising approach and resource to accelerate future CBP for butanol production.

Consolidated bioprocessing performance of bacterial consortium EMSD5 on hemicellulose for isopropanol production

Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) of lignocellulose by bacterial consortium for isopropanol production is considered as the most promising strategy. However, low utilization of xylan caused by the complex sidechain structure remains inhibit the conversion of full-biomass. In this study, isopropanol production from different lignocelluloses by the consortium EMSD5 through CBP was performed. A total of 7.00 g/L of isopropanol was obtained from corncob by optimizing fermentation conditions. Isopropanol production by EMSD5 was mainly based on utilizing xylan in corncob and isopropanol titer was increased by 47.71% and reached up to 8.39 g/L using arabinoxylan compared with linear xylan. The analysis of community structures and the isolation of key strain confirmed the enrichment of the isopropanol producer, Clostridium beijierinckii, in the bacterial community when it was incubated with corn glucuronoarabinoxylan and the cooperation between C. beijerinckii and lignocellulose degraders. The unique features of EMSD5 could lead to large-scale isopropanol production using lignocellulose.

Biofuel production from straw hydrolysates: current achievements and perspectives

Straw is an agricultural residue of the production of e.g. cereals, rapeseed or sunflowers. It includes dried stalks, leaves, and empty ears and corncobs, which are separated from the grains during harvest. Straw is a promising lignocellulosic feedstock with a beneficial greenhouse gas balance for the production of biofuels and chemicals. Like all lignocellulosic materials, straw is recalcitrant and requires thermochemical and enzymatic pretreatment to enable access to the three major biopolymers of straw-the polysaccharides cellulose and hemicellulose and the polyaromatic compound lignin. Straw is used for commercial ethanol and biogas production. Considerable research has also been conducted to produce biobutanol, biodiesel and biochemicals from this raw material, but more research is required to establish them on a commercial scale. The major hindrance for launching industrial biofuel and chemicals' production from straw is the high cost necessitated by pretreatment of the material. Improvements of microbial strains, production and extraction technologies, as well as co-production of high-value compounds represent ways of establishing straw as feedstock for the production of biofuels, chemicals and food.

Recent advances of biofuels and biochemicals production from sustainable resources using co-cultivation systems

Microbial communities are ubiquitous in nature and exhibit several attractive features, such as sophisticated metabolic capabilities and strong environment robustness. Inspired by the advantages of natural microbial consortia, diverse artificial co-cultivation systems have been metabolically constructed for biofuels, chemicals and natural products production. In these co-cultivation systems, especially genetic engineering ones can reduce the metabolic burden caused by the complex of metabolic pathway through labor division, and improve the target product production significantly. This review summarized the most up-to-dated co-cultivation systems used for biofuels, chemicals and nature products production. In addition, major challenges associated with co-cultivation systems are also presented and discussed for meeting further industrial demands.

Advances in the development and application of microbial consortia for metabolic engineering

Recent advances in metabolic engineering enable the production of high-value chemicals via expressing complex biosynthetic pathways in a single microbial host. However, many engineered strains suffer from poor product yields due to redox imbalance and excess metabolic burden, and require compartmentalization of the pathway for optimal function. To address this problem, significant developments have been made towards co-cultivation of more than one engineered microbial strains to distribute metabolic burden between the co-cultivation partners and improve the product yield. In this emerging approach, metabolic pathway modules can be optimized separately in suitable hosts that will then be combined to enable optimal functionality of the complete pathway. This modular approach broadens the possibilities to fine tune sophisticated production platforms and thus achieve the biosynthesis of very complex compounds.

Here, we review the different applications and the overall potential of natural and artificial co-cultivation systems in metabolic engineering in order to improve bioproduction/bioconversion. In addition to the several advantages over monocultures, major challenges and opportunities associated with co-cultivation are also discussed in this review.

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Benefits of using co-cultivation system in metabolic engineering.

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Existence of natural consortia and their application.

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Recent advancement in co-cultivation methodology for bioproductions.

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Challenges in implementing microbial consortia for microbial biosynthesis.

The draft genome sequence of Clostridium sp. strain CT7, an isolate capable of producing butanol but not acetone and 1,3-propanediol from crude glycerol

A solventogenic Clostridium sp. strain CT7 which could utilize glycerol directly to produce high yields of butanol was isolated. In the presence of crude glycerol, strain CT7 synthesized butanol through a unique butanol-ethanol (BE) fermentation pathway in which acetone and 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO) were not produced. The genome of strain CT7 which has a G + C content of 30.3% was estimated to be 5.99 Mb and contained 4319 putative Open Reading Frames (ORF). The putative annotated genes, which play major roles in BE production from crude glycerol, included glycerol dehydrogenase gene (gdh), acetoacetyl-CoA transferase gene (ctfA/B), and bifunctional alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase gene (adhE). In addition, non-typical BE production is not coupled to 1,3-propanediol formation, which may due to the defect of 1, 3-PDO dehydrogenase gene (dhaT).