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Maumela P, Khwathisi A, Madala NE, Serepa-Dlamini MH. In silico biotechnological potential of Bacillus sp. strain MHSD_37 bacterial endophyte. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:399. [PMID: 38658836 PMCID: PMC11040839 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10305-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endophytic bacteria possess a range of unique characteristics that enable them to successfully interact with their host and survive in adverse environments. This study employed in silico analysis to identify genes, from Bacillus sp. strain MHSD_37, with potential biotechnological applications. RESULTS The strain presented several endophytic lifestyle genes which encode for motility, quorum sensing, stress response, desiccation tolerance and root colonisation. The presence of plant growth promoting genes such as those involved in nitrogen fixation, nitrate assimilation, siderophores synthesis, seed germination and promotion of root nodule symbionts, was detected. Strain MHSD_37 also possessed genes involved in insect virulence and evasion of defence system. The genome analysis also identified the presence of genes involved in heavy metal tolerance, xenobiotic resistance, and the synthesis of siderophores involved in heavy metal tolerance. Furthermore, LC-MS analysis of the excretome identified secondary metabolites with biological activities such as anti-cancer, antimicrobial and applications as surfactants. CONCLUSIONS Strain MHSD_37 thereby demonstrated potential biotechnological application in bioremediation, biofertilisation and biocontrol. Moreover, the strain presented genes encoding products with potential novel application in bio-nanotechnology and pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pfariso Maumela
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, South Africa
| | - Adivhaho Khwathisi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, 0950, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, 0950, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Mahloro Hope Serepa-Dlamini
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, South Africa.
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Badilla-Vargas L, Pereira R, Molina-Mora JA, Alape-Girón A, Flores-Díaz M. Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C, an archetypal bacterial virulence factor, induces the formation of extracellular traps by human neutrophils. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1278718. [PMID: 37965263 PMCID: PMC10641792 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1278718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of DNA and various microbicidal proteins released to kill invading microorganisms and prevent their dissemination. However, a NETs excess is detrimental to the host and involved in the pathogenesis of various inflammatory and immunothrombotic diseases. Clostridium perfringens is a widely distributed pathogen associated with several animal and human diseases, that produces many exotoxins, including the phospholipase C (CpPLC), the main virulence factor in gas gangrene. During this disease, CpPLC generates the formation of neutrophil/platelet aggregates within the vasculature, favoring an anaerobic environment for C. perfringens growth. This work demonstrates that CpPLC induces NETosis in human neutrophils. Antibodies against CpPLC completely abrogate the NETosis-inducing activity of recombinant CpPLC and C. perfringens secretome. CpPLC induces suicidal NETosis through a mechanism that requires calcium release from inositol trisphosphate receptor (IP3) sensitive stores, activation of protein kinase C (PKC), and the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK/ERK) pathways, as well as the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the metabolism of arachidonic acid. Proteomic analysis of the C. perfringens secretome identified 40 proteins, including a DNAse and two 5´-nucleotidases homologous to virulence factors that could be relevant in evading NETs. We suggested that in gas gangrene this pathogen benefits from having access to the metabolic resources of the tissue injured by a dysregulated intravascular NETosis and then escapes and spreads to deeper tissues. Understanding the role of NETs in gas gangrene could help develop novel therapeutic strategies to reduce mortality, improve muscle regeneration, and prevent deleterious patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Badilla-Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Reynaldo Pereira
- Centro Nacional de alta Tecnología, Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE), San José, Costa Rica
| | - José Arturo Molina-Mora
- Centro de investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Alberto Alape-Girón
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Marietta Flores-Díaz
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Ribeiro JM, Cameselle JC. Genomic Distribution of ushA-like Genes in Bacteria: Comparison to cpdB-like Genes. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1657. [PMID: 37628708 PMCID: PMC10454023 DOI: 10.3390/genes14081657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
UshA and CpdB are nucleotidases of the periplasm of several Gram-negative bacteria, while several Gram-positives contain cell wall-bound variants. UshA is a 5'-nucleotidase, a UDP-sugar hydrolase, and a CDP-alcohol hydrolase. CpdB acts as a 3'-nucleotidase and as a phosphodiesterase of 2',3'-cyclic nucleotides and 3',5'-linear and cyclic dinucleotides. Both proteins are pro-virulent for the pathogens producing them and facilitate escape from the innate immunity of the infected host. Recently, the genomic distribution of cpdB-like genes in Bacteria was found to be non-homogeneous among different taxa, and differences occur within single taxa, even at species level. Similitudes and differences between UshA-like and CpdB-like proteins prompted parallel analysis of their genomic distributions in Bacteria. The presence of ushA-like and cpdB-like genes was tested by TBlastN analysis using seven protein probes to query the NCBI Complete Genomes Database. It is concluded that the distribution of ushA-like genes, like that of cpdB-like genes, is non-homogeneous. There is a partial correlation between both gene kinds: in some taxa, both are present or absent, while in others, only one is present. The result is an extensive catalog of the genomic distribution of these genes at different levels, from phylum to species, constituting a starting point for research using other in silico or experimental approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain;
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Nishiyama T, Hoshino R, Ueda K. Characterization of 5'-nucleotidases secreted from Streptomyces. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:2289-2302. [PMID: 36820897 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12426-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
To study the ability of Streptomyces to utilize environmental nucleotides, we screened for strains exhibiting extracellular 5'-inosine monophosphate (IMP)-dephosphorylating activity in our collection of soil isolates and obtained two producers: NE5-10 and Y2F8-2. The enzyme responsible for the activity was purified from the culture supernatant of each strain, and its mass spectral data were used to identify the coding sequence. The gene was successfully identified in the whole genome sequence of each strain; it was located in a conserved gene cluster of phosphate-related functions and encoded an approximately 600-amino acid long protein containing an N-terminal secretion signal. The mature part of the protein exhibited similarity to a known bacterial 5'-nucleotidase. The locus of the 5'-nucleotidase gene contained genes encoding proteins involved in phosphate utilization. The conserved gene arrangement of the locus in various Streptomyces genomes suggested the genetic region to be involved in phosphate-scavenging in this group of bacteria. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the isolated Streptomyces enzymes represent an uncharacterized group of bacterial 5'-nucleotidases. Enzymatic characterization of the two Streptomyces enzymes demonstrated that both enzymes exhibited 5'-nucleotidase activity but differed in terms of optimal temperature and pH, dependence on divalent cations, and substrate specificity. The Km and Vmax values of the 5'-IMP-dephosphorylating activity were 0.239 mM and 9.47 U/mg, respectively, for NE5-10 and 0.221 mM and 38.17 U/mg, respectively, for Y2F8-2. Enzyme activity in the culture broth of the two Streptomyces producers occurred in a phosphate-limitation-dependent manner, supporting their involvement in the acquisition of phosphorus. KEY POINTS: • We purified and characterized nucleotidases from two Streptomyces. • Two nucleotidases were presumed to be involved in phosphate acquisition. • It showed diversity in phosphate acquisition among microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Nishiyama
- Life Science Research Center, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, 252-0880, Fujisawa, Japan.
| | - Rio Hoshino
- Life Science Research Center, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, 252-0880, Fujisawa, Japan
| | - Kenji Ueda
- Life Science Research Center, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, 252-0880, Fujisawa, Japan
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Comprehensive insights into the metabolism characteristics of small RNA Qrr4 in Vibrio alginolyticus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:1887-1902. [PMID: 36795140 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12435-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Vibrio alginolyticus is an important foodborne pathogen that can infect both humans and marine animals and cause massive economic losses in aquaculture. Small noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) are emerging posttranscriptional regulators that affect bacterial physiology and pathological processes. In the present work, a new cell density-dependent sRNA, Qrr4, was characterized in V. alginolyticus based on a previously reported RNA-seq analysis and bioinformatics approach. The effects of Qrr4 actions on the physiology, virulence, and metabolism of V. alginolyticus were comprehensively investigated based on molecular biology and metabolomics approaches. The results showed that qrr4 deletion markedly inhibited growth, motility and extracellular protease activities. Additionally, nontargeted metabolism and lipidomics analyses revealed that qrr4 deletion induced significant disturbance of multiple metabolic pathways. The key metabolic remodelling that occurred in response to qrr4 deletion was found to involve phospholipid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and amino acid metabolic pathways, providing novel clues about a potential mechanism via which mutation of qrr4 could interfere with cellular energy homeostasis, modulate membrane phospholipid composition and inhibit nucleic acid and protein syntheses to regulate the motility, growth and virulence characteristics of V. alginolyticus. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the regulatory roles of the new cell density-dependent sRNA Qrr4 in V. alginolyticus. KEY POINTS: • A novel cell density-dependent sRNA, Qrr4, was cloned in V. alginolyticus. •Qrr4 regulated growth and virulence factors of V. alginolyticus. • Phospholipid, nucleotide and energy metabolisms were modulated obviously by Qrr4.
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Genotoxins: The Mechanistic Links between Escherichia coli and Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15041152. [PMID: 36831495 PMCID: PMC9954437 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15041152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates bacterial infections contribute to the formation of cancers. Bacterial genotoxins are effectors that cause DNA damage by introducing single- and double-strand DNA breaks in the host cells. The first bacterial genotoxin cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) was a protein identified in 1987 in a pathogenic strain in Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from a young patient. The peptide-polyketide genotoxin colibactin is produced by the phylogenetic group B2 of E. coli. Recently, a protein produced by attaching/effacing (A/E) pathogens, including enteropathogenic and enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EPEC and EHEC) and their murine equivalent Citrobacter rodentium (CR), has been reported as a novel protein genotoxin, being injected via the type III secretion system (T3SS) into host cells and harboring direct DNA digestion activity with a catalytic histidine-aspartic acid dyad. These E. coli-produced genotoxins impair host DNA, which results in senescence or apoptosis of the target cells if the damage is beyond repair. Conversely, host cells can survive and proliferate if the genotoxin-induced DNA damage is not severe enough to kill them. The surviving cells may accumulate genomic instability and acquire malignant traits. This review presents the cellular responses of infection with the genotoxins-producing E. coli and discusses the current knowledge of the tumorigenic potential of these toxins.
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Qian M, Xu K, Zhang M, Niu J, Zhao T, Wang X, Jia Y, Li J, Yu Z, He L, Li Y, Wu T, Wei Y, Chen J, Chen S, Zhang C, Liao C. 5'-Nucleotidase is dispensable for the growth of Salmonella Typhimurium but inhibits the bactericidal activity of macrophage extracellular traps. Arch Microbiol 2022; 205:20. [PMID: 36482126 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-022-03353-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is a zoonotic pathogen that causes severe gastroenteritis. The 5'-nucleotidases of pathogens can dephosphorylate adenosine phosphates, boost adenosine levels and suppress the pro-inflammatory immune response. In our previous study, an extracellular nuclease, 5'-nucleotidase, was identified in the extracellular proteins of S. Typhimurium. However, the nuclease activity and the function of the 5'-nucleotidase of S. Typhimurium have not been explored. In the present study, deletion of the 5'-nucleotidase gene is dispensable for S. Typhimurium growth, even under environmental stress. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that the 5'-nucleotidase mutant induced more macrophage extracellular traps (METs) than the wild type did. Furthermore, recombinant 5'-nucleotidase protein (r5Nuc) could degrade λDNA, and the nuclease activity of r5Nuc was optimum at 37 °C and pH 6.0-7.0. The Mg2+ enhanced the nuclease activity of r5Nuc, whereas Zn2+ inhibited it. Meanwhile, deletion of the 5'-nucleotidase gene increased the bactericidal activity of METs, and r5Nuc could degrade METs and inhibit the bactericidal activity of METs. In conclusion, S. Typhimurium growth was independent of 5'-nucleotidase, but the nuclease activity of 5'-nucleotidase assisted S. Typhimurium to evade macrophage-mediated extracellular killing through degrading METs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Qian
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Ke Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengke Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Junhui Niu
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianxiang Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanyan Jia
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Zuhua Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei He
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinju Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingcai Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Songbiao Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunjie Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chengshui Liao
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, 263 Kaiyuan Road, Luoyang, 471023, People's Republic of China.
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Liao C, Mao F, Qian M, Wang X. Pathogen-Derived Nucleases: An Effective Weapon for Escaping Extracellular Traps. Front Immunol 2022; 13:899890. [PMID: 35865526 PMCID: PMC9294136 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.899890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the 2004 publication of the first study describing extracellular traps (ETs) from human neutrophils, several reports have shown the presence of ETs in a variety of different animals and plants. ETs perform two important functions of immobilizing and killing invading microbes and are considered a novel part of the phagocytosis-independent, innate immune extracellular defense system. However, several pathogens can release nucleases that degrade the DNA backbone of ETs, reducing their effectiveness and resulting in increased pathogenicity. In this review, we examined the relevant literature and summarized the results on bacterial and fungal pathogens and parasites that produce nucleases to evade the ET-mediated host antimicrobial mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengshui Liao
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
- *Correspondence: Chengshui Liao, ; Xiaoli Wang,
| | - Fuchao Mao
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
- Animal Diseases and Public Health Engineering Research Center of Henan Province, Luoyang Vocational and Technical College, Luoyang, China
| | - Man Qian
- College of Animal Science and Technology/Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
- *Correspondence: Chengshui Liao, ; Xiaoli Wang,
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McEwan TBD, Sanderson-Smith ML, Sluyter R. Purinergic Signalling in Group A Streptococcus Pathogenesis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:872053. [PMID: 35422801 PMCID: PMC9002173 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.872053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- T B-D McEwan
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,Molecular Horizons and School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - M L Sanderson-Smith
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,Molecular Horizons and School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - R Sluyter
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,Molecular Horizons and School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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