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Cardiac sympathetic innervation in Parkinson's disease versus multiple system atrophy. Clin Auton Res 2022; 32:103-114. [PMID: 35149937 PMCID: PMC9064856 DOI: 10.1007/s10286-022-00853-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose The aims of this study were to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the dual imaging method combining cardiac iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine single-photon emission computed tomography combined with low-dose chest computed tomography compared to routine cardiac scintigraphy, and assess regional differences in tracer distribution and the relationships between imaging and autonomic function in Parkinson’s disease and multiple system atrophy. Methods A prospective study including 19 Parkinson’s disease and 12 multiple system atrophy patients was performed. Patients underwent clinical evaluation, iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine single-photon emission computed tomography combined with chest computed tomography, planar scintigraphy, and cardiovascular autonomic function tests. Results Co-registration of single-photon emission computed tomography and chest computed tomography resulted in three groups with distinct patterns of tracer uptake: homogeneous, non-homogeneously reduced and absent. There was a significant difference in group allocation among patients with multiple system atrophy and Parkinson’s disease (p = 0.001). Most multiple system atrophy patients showed homogeneous uptake, and the majority of Parkinson’s disease patients showed absent cardiac tracer uptake. We identified a pattern of heterogeneous cardiac tracer uptake in both diseases with reductions in the apex and the lateral myocardial wall. Sympathetic dysfunction reflected by a missing blood pressure overshoot during Valsalva manoeuvre correlated with cardiac tracer distribution in Parkinson’s disease patients (p < 0.001). Conclusions The diagnostic accuracy of the dual imaging method and routine cardiac scintigraphy were similar. Anatomical tracer allocation provided by the dual imaging method of cardiac iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine single-photon emission computed tomography and chest computed tomography identified a heterogeneous subgroup of Parkinson’s disease and multiple system atrophy patients with reduced cardiac tracer uptake in the apex and the lateral wall. Sympathetic dysfunction correlated with cardiac imaging in Parkinson’s disease patients.
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Roberts G, Lloyd JJ, Jefferson E, Kane JPM, Durcan R, Lawley S, Petrides GS, Howe K, Haq I, O'Brien JT, Thomas AJ. Uniformity of cardiac 123I-MIBG uptake on SPECT images in older adults with normal cognition and patients with dementia. J Nucl Cardiol 2021; 28:2151-2163. [PMID: 31820410 PMCID: PMC8648658 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-019-01977-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Some studies report that assessing regional 123I-cardiac MIBG uptake can aid in the diagnosis of Lewy body disease, but others report heterogeneity in healthy controls. We aimed to evaluate regional cardiac MIBG uptake patterns in healthy older adults and patients with dementia. METHODS 31 older adults with normal cognition, 15 Alzheimer's disease (AD), and 17 Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) patients were recruited. 5 individuals had previous myocardial infarction. Participants with sufficient cardiac uptake for regional SPECT analysis (29/31 controls, 15/15 AD, 5/17 DLB) had relative uptake pattern recorded. Controls were assessed for risk of future cardiovascular events using QRISK2, a validated online tool. RESULTS In controls uptake was reduced in the inferior wall (85%), apex (23%), septum (15%), and lateral wall (8%). AD and DLB showed similar patterns to controls. Lung or liver interference was present in 61% of cases. Myocardial infarction cases showed regional reductions in uptake, but normal/borderline planar uptake. In controls, there was no relationship between cardiovascular risk score and uptake pattern. CONCLUSIONS Significant variability of regional cardiac 123I-MIBG uptake is common in cases with normal planar cardiac uptake. Heterogeneity of regional uptake appears non-specific and unlikely to aid in the diagnosis of Lewy body disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Roberts
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Biomedical Research Building, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE, UK.
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Leazes Wing, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK.
| | - Jim J Lloyd
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Biomedical Research Building, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE, UK
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Leazes Wing, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Elizabeth Jefferson
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Leazes Wing, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Joseph P M Kane
- Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast, BT12 6BA, UK
| | - Rory Durcan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Biomedical Research Building, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE, UK
| | - Sarah Lawley
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Biomedical Research Building, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE, UK
| | - George S Petrides
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Leazes Wing, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Kim Howe
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Leazes Wing, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Iftikhar Haq
- Cardiology Department, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - John T O'Brien
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Box 189, Level E4 Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0SP, UK
| | - Alan J Thomas
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Biomedical Research Building, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE, UK
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Gimelli A, Liga R, Agostini D, Bengel FM, Ernst S, Hyafil F, Saraste A, Scholte AJHA, Verberne HJ, Verschure DO, Slart RHJA. The role of myocardial innervation imaging in different clinical scenarios: an expert document of the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging and Cardiovascular Committee of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2021; 22:480-490. [PMID: 33523108 DOI: 10.1093/ehjci/jeab007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiac sympathetic activity plays a key role in supporting cardiac function in both health and disease conditions, and nuclear cardiac imaging has always represented the only way for the non-invasive evaluation of the functional integrity of cardiac sympathetic terminals, mainly through the use of radiopharmaceuticals that are analogues of norepinephrine and, in particular, with the use of 123I-mIBG imaging. This technique demonstrates the presence of cardiac sympathetic dysfunction in different cardiac pathologies, linking the severity of sympathetic nervous system impairment to adverse patient's prognosis. This article will outline the state-of-the-art of cardiac 123I-mIBG imaging and define the value and clinical applications in the different fields of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Gimelli
- Department of Imaging, Fondazione Toscana/CNR Gabriele Monasterio1, via Moruzzi n.1, Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Riccardo Liga
- Cardiac-Thoracic-Vascular Department, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Denis Agostini
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Normandy, CHU Cote de Nacre, Caen, France
| | - Frank M Bengel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hannover, Germany
| | - Sabine Ernst
- Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Fabien Hyafil
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, European Hospital Georges-Pompidou, DMU IMAGINA, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris, France
| | - Antti Saraste
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Heart Center, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Arthur J H A Scholte
- Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hein J Verberne
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Derk O Verschure
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Cardiology, Zaans Medical Center, Zaandam, the Netherlands
| | - Riemer H J A Slart
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Medical Imaging Centre, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Faculty of Science and Technology, Biomedical Photonic Imaging, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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Wu J, Gallezot JD, Lu Y, Ye Q, Liu H, Esserman DA, Kyriakides TC, Thorn SL, Zonouz TH, Liu YH, Lampert RJ, Sinusas AJ, Carson RE, Liu C. Simplified Quantification and Acquisition Protocol for 123I-MIBG Dynamic SPECT. J Nucl Med 2018; 59:1574-1580. [PMID: 29476001 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.117.202143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated the feasibility of absolute quantification of dynamic 123I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (123I-MIBG) SPECT imaging in humans. This work reports a simplified quantification method for dynamic 123I-MIBG SPECT using practical protocols with shortened acquisition time and voxel-by-voxel parametric imaging. Methods: Twelve healthy human volunteers underwent five 15-min dynamic SPECT scans at 0, 15, 90, 120, and 180 min after 123I-MIBG injection. List-mode SPECT data were binned into 29 frames and reconstructed with corrections for attenuation, scatter, and decay. Population-based blood-to-plasma correction and metabolite correction were applied to the image-derived input function. Likelihood estimation in graphical analysis (LEGA) was used as a simplified model to obtain volume of distribution (V T) values, which were compared with those obtained with the reversible 2-tissue (2T) compartment model. Three simplified protocols were evaluated with 2T and LEGA using a 30-min scan started simultaneously with tracer injection plus a 15-min scan at 90, 120, or 180 min after injection. Voxel-by-voxel LEGA fitting was applied to the aligned dynamic images using both the full protocol (five 15-min scans) and the simplified protocols. Results: Correlation analysis (y = 0.955x + 0.547, R 2 = 0.997) and Bland-Altman plot (mean difference, -0.8 mL/cm3; 95% limits of agreement, [-2.5, 1.0] mL/cm3; normal V T range, 29.0 ± 12.4 mL/cm3) showed that LEGA can be used as a simplified model of 2T for 123I-MIBG. High-quality V T parametric images could be obtained with LEGA. Region-of-interest (ROI) modeling and parametric imaging results were in excellent agreement as determined by correlation analysis (y = 0.999x - 1.026, R 2 = 0.982) and Bland-Altman plot (mean difference, -1.0 mL/cm3; 95% limits of agreement, [-4.2, 2.1] mL/cm3). V T correlated reasonably well between all simplified protocols and the full protocol with LEGA but not with 2T. The V T results were more reliable when there was a longer interval between the 2 acquisitions in the simplified protocols. Conclusion: For ROI-based kinetic modeling and parametric imaging, reliable quantification of dynamic 123I-MIBG SPECT can be achieved with LEGA using a simplified protocol of a 30-min scan starting with tracer injection plus a 15-min scan no earlier than 180 min after injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wu
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Yihuan Lu
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Qing Ye
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Engineering Physics, Key Laboratory of Particle and Radiation Imaging (Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Internal Medicine (Cardiology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Denise A Esserman
- Yale School of Public Health (Biostatistics), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Tassos C Kyriakides
- Yale School of Public Health (Biostatistics), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Stephanie L Thorn
- Department of Internal Medicine (Cardiology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Yi-Hwa Liu
- Department of Internal Medicine (Cardiology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; and.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Rachel J Lampert
- Department of Internal Medicine (Cardiology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Albert J Sinusas
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Internal Medicine (Cardiology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Richard E Carson
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Chi Liu
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
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Le W, Dong J, Li S, Korczyn AD. Can Biomarkers Help the Early Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease? Neurosci Bull 2017; 33:535-542. [PMID: 28866850 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-017-0174-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease with progressive loss of dopamine neurons. PD patients usually manifest a series of motor and non-motor symptoms. In order to provide better early diagnosis and subsequent disease-modifying therapies for PD patients, there is an urgent need to identify sensitive and specific biomarkers. Biomarkers can be divided into four categories: clinical, imaging, biochemical, and genetic. Ideal biomarkers not only improve our understanding of PD pathogenesis and progression, but also provide benefits for early risk evaluation and clinical diagnosis of PD. Although many efforts have been made and several biomarkers have been extensively investigated, few if any have been found useful for early diagnosis. Here, we summarize recent developments in the discovered biomarkers of PD and discuss their merits and limitations for the early diagnosis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Le
- Liaoning Provincial Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China. .,Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China. .,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China.
| | - Jie Dong
- Liaoning Provincial Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China.,Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China
| | - Song Li
- Liaoning Provincial Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China.,Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory for Research on the Pathogenic Mechanisms of Neurological Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116021, China
| | - Amos D Korczyn
- Department of Neurology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, 69978, Ramat-Aviv, Israel.
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Guillaume L, Denis A. Cardiac 123I-MIBG scintigraphy: A window into the brain in Parkinsonism? J Nucl Cardiol 2017; 24:108-110. [PMID: 26643173 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-015-0353-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Agostini Denis
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Caen and Normandie Université, EA4650, Caen, France.
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7
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Giubbini R, Milan E, Marcassa C, Paghera B, Fracassi F, Camoni L, Rodella C, Bertagna F, Motta F, Bertoli M, Campini R. 1-23I-MIBG thyroid uptake: Implications for MIBG imaging of the heart. J Nucl Cardiol 2016; 23:1335-1339. [PMID: 25963285 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-015-0142-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 123I-MIBG has been widely used in patients with heart failure and neurological disorders. The patients are pre-treated with Lugol's oral solution or potassium perchlorate to prevent thyroid uptake of unlabeled 123I to limit the thyroid radiation exposure. However, despite the inhibition of the iodide pump, the thyroid is frequently visualized. The aim of this study was to study the pattern of thyroid uptake. METHODS We reviewed the 123I-MIBG images of 57 patients studied in three different centers in Italy for cardiac (n = 42) or neurological (n = 15) indications. They were imaged at 15 minutes and 4 hours after injection and in all patients, the thyroid was included in the imaging field of view. In 2 of the 3 centers, the patients were pre-treated with Lugol's oral solution and/or potassium perchlorate (group 1) but in the third center, they were not (group 2). The following imaging parameters were evaluated: heart-to-mediastinum ratio (H/M), thyroid-to-mediastinum ratio (T/M) at 4 hours, and tracer wash out from the heart (HWO) and from the thyroid (TWO). RESULTS In the cardiac patients, the HWO was 22.98 ± 7.16% and TWO was 11.4 ± 11.86% (P < .0001). The TWO was 12.2 ± 13.1% in group 1 and 10.05 ± 8.97% in group 2 (P = NS). In the neurological patients the HWO was 26 ± 8.1% and the TWO was 20.32 ± 6.41 (P < .05). The difference in TWO was statistically significant (P < .01) between cardiac and neurological patients, whereas the HWO was not. The 4-hour H/M was 1.49 ± 0.23 in cardiac patients vs 1.4 ± 0.39 in neurological patients (P = NS). The 4-hour T/M was 1.33 ± 0.3 in cardiac patients vs 1.15 ± 0.13 in neurological patients (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION The thyroid visualization in MIBG imaging is likely an expression of thyroid sympathetic innervation. The differences in TWO and T/M ratio in cardiac and neurological patients probably express differences in thyroid dopaminergic receptors. Thus, pre-treatment with potassium perchlorate or Lugol's solution may not be justified in patients undergoing 123I-MIBG imaging in whom the risk of side effects due to pre-treatment could be higher than the risk due to thyroid radiation exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Giubbini
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy.
| | - Elisa Milan
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, San Giacomo Apostolo Hospital, Castelfranco Veneto, TV, Italy
| | - Claudio Marcassa
- Cardiology Department, Fondazione Maugeri Centro Medico, Veruno, NO, Italy
| | - Barbara Paghera
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Federica Fracassi
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Luca Camoni
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Carlo Rodella
- Health Physics Department, Spedali Civili, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesco Bertagna
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Federica Motta
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Mattia Bertoli
- Chair of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medical Imaging, University and Spedali Civili, Piazza Spedali Civili, 1, Brescia, Italy
| | - Riccardo Campini
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Fondazione Maugeri Centro Medico, Veruno, NO, Italy
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Normal values and standardization of parameters in nuclear cardiology: Japanese Society of Nuclear Medicine working group database. Ann Nucl Med 2016; 30:188-99. [PMID: 26897008 PMCID: PMC4819542 DOI: 10.1007/s12149-016-1065-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
As a 2-year project of the Japanese Society of Nuclear Medicine working group activity, normal myocardial imaging databases were accumulated and summarized. Stress-rest with gated and non-gated image sets were accumulated for myocardial perfusion imaging and could be used for perfusion defect scoring and normal left ventricular (LV) function analysis. For single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with multi-focal collimator design, databases of supine and prone positions and computed tomography (CT)-based attenuation correction were created. The CT-based correction provided similar perfusion patterns between genders. In phase analysis of gated myocardial perfusion SPECT, a new approach for analyzing dyssynchrony, normal ranges of parameters for phase bandwidth, standard deviation and entropy were determined in four software programs. Although the results were not interchangeable, dependency on gender, ejection fraction and volumes were common characteristics of these parameters. Standardization of 123I-MIBG sympathetic imaging was performed regarding heart-to-mediastinum ratio (HMR) using a calibration phantom method. The HMRs from any collimator types could be converted to the value with medium-energy comparable collimators. Appropriate quantification based on common normal databases and standard technology could play a pivotal role for clinical practice and researches.
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