Sperm traits in the quacking frog (Crinia georgiana), a species with plastic alternative mating tactics

Germinative dynamic, seasonality, and polyandry: A dive in neotropical point-belly frog reproduction

Complexity and reproductive plasticity are very well-known characteristics of anurans. The group is being continuously explored taxonomically and phylogenetically, which leads to a great potential diversity not yet uncovered. This is particularly evident due to the lack of investigation regarding species-specific traits, even the ones well distributed in the lineages as polyandry. Although the climate and environment affect reproductive variability, each species has unique dynamics, and a deeper understanding of their reproductive cycles is essential for meaningful comparisons and recognition of patterns within the extensive variability observed in anurans. Given this context, the present study examined the reproductive and environmental parameters of the polyandrous species Leptodactylus podicipinus throughout its reproductive cycle over two consecutive years. The objective was to characterize the species' reproductive dynamics and compare them with phylogenetically related species and other polyandrous species, aiming to explore patterns and the influence of polyandry on anuran reproduction. The main reproductive activity of L. podicipinus was during the months with greater rainfall, from October to February. The seminiferous epithelium presented a higher mean of final germinative cells (spermatozoa) in the reproductive period (October-February) and early germinative cells (spermatocytes I and spermatids) in the non-reproductive period (March-September). Among the climatic parameters tested, rainfall was the only one significantly related to reproductive outcomes. Two distinct germinative patterns were identified between polyandric and non-polyandric species compared. Polyandry is certainly a trait that plays a significant role in shaping gametogenesis and the evolution of animals with this reproductive attribute.

Male alternative reproductive tactics and sperm competition: a meta-analysis

In many animal species, males may exhibit one of several discrete, alternative ways of obtaining fertilisations, known as alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs). Males exhibiting ARTs typically differ in the extent to which they invest in traits that improve their mating success, or the extent to which they face sperm competition. This has led to the widespread prediction that males exhibiting ARTs associated with a high sperm competition risk, or lower investment into traits that improve their competitiveness before mating, should invest more heavily into traits that improve their competitiveness after mating, such as large ejaculates and high-quality sperm. However, despite many studies investigating this question since the 1990s, evidence for differences in sperm and ejaculate investment between male ARTs is mixed, and there has been no quantitative summary of this field. Following a systematic review of the literature, we performed a meta-analysis examining how testes size, sperm number and sperm traits differ between males exhibiting ARTs that face either a high or low sperm competition risk, or high or low investment in traits that increase mating success. We obtained data from 92 studies and 67 species from across the animal kingdom. Our analyses showed that male fish exhibiting ARTs facing a high sperm competition risk had significantly larger testes (after controlling for body size) than those exhibiting tactics facing a low sperm competition risk. However, this effect appears to be due to the inappropriate use of the gonadosomatic index as a body-size corrected measure of testes investment, which overestimates the difference in testes investment between male tactics in most cases. We found no significant difference in sperm number between males exhibiting different ARTs, regardless of whether sperm were measured from the male sperm stores or following ejaculation. We also found no significant difference in sperm traits between males exhibiting different ARTs, with the exception of sperm adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content in fish. Finally, the difference in post-mating investment between male ARTs was not influenced by the extent to which tactics were flexible, or by the frequency of sneakers in the population. Overall, our results suggest that, despite clear theoretical predictions, there is little evidence that male ARTs differ substantially in investment into sperm and ejaculates across species. The incongruence between theoretical and empirical results could be explained if (i) theoretical models fail to account for differences in overall resource levels between males exhibiting different ARTs or fundamental trade-offs between investment into different ejaculate and sperm traits, and (ii) studies often use sperm or ejaculate traits that do not reflect overall post-mating investment accurately or affect fertilisation success.

Fertilization potential of cold-stored Fowler's toad (Anaxyrus fowleri) spermatozoa: temporal changes in sperm motility based on temperature and osmolality

Asynchrony of gamete release is problematic in amphibian captive breeding programs but can be overcome by short-term storage of spermatozoa. Hormonally induced sperm from the model species Anaxyrus fowleri were used to determine storage conditions for optimal fertilisation capacity. Sperm motility was measured over time, as a function of storage temperature (4°C or 22°C) and solution osmolality (7-40mOsm/kg). Sperm at 40mOsm/kg (spermic urine) stored at 4°C exhibited higher motility compared to 22°C. Also, sperm stored at 40mOsm/kg retained higher motility compared to sperm stored below 15mOsm/kg at both temperatures. Under optimal storage conditions (40mOsm and 4°C) a 30% decrease in sperm motility occurred within 24h, however, subsequent loss of sperm motility was lower (<10%/day) for days2-8 thereafter. Sperm samples stored for 1-8days under optimal conditions were tested for fertilising capacity by conducting in vitro fertilisation trials. Sperm stored for 8days yielded 48% neurula development, similar to sperm stored for 1day, which produced 60% neurula development. Overall, sperm stored for up to 8days at 4°C as spermic urine retained fertilising capacity and thus can be used to circumvent asynchronous gamete release in assisted breeding efforts for amphibians.

Ejaculate Allocation and Sperm Characteristics Differ among Alternative Male Types in a Species of Fish with Cooperation and Competition among Unrelated Males

Sexual selection arising from sperm competition has driven the evolution of immense variation in ejaculate allocation and sperm characteristics not only among species, but also among males within a species. One question that has received little attention is how cooperation among males affects these patterns. Here we ask how male alternative reproductive types differ in testes size, ejaculate production, and sperm morphology in the ocellated wrasse, a marine fish in which unrelated males cooperate and compete during reproduction. Nesting males build nests, court females and provide care. Sneaker males only “sneak” spawn, while satellite males sneak, but also help by chasing away sneakers. We found that satellite males have larger absolute testes than either sneakers or nesting males, despite their cooperative role. Nesting males invested relatively less in testes than either sneakers or satellites. Though sneakers produced smaller ejaculates than either satellite or nesting males, we found no difference among male types in either sperm cell concentration or sperm number, implying sneakers may produce less seminal fluid. Sperm tail length did not differ significantly among male types, but sneaker sperm cells had significantly larger heads than either satellite or nesting male sperm, consistent with past research showing sneakers produce slower sperm. Our results highlight that social interactions among males can influence sperm and ejaculate production.

Ejaculate evolution in external fertilizers: Influenced by sperm competition or sperm limitation?

The evolution of sperm quality and quantity is shaped by various selective processes, with sperm competition generally considered the primary selective agent. Particularly in external fertilizers, however, sperm limitation through gamete dispersal can also influence gamete investments, but empirical data examining this effect are limited. Here, we studied the relative importance of sperm competition and the spawning conditions in explaining the macroevolutionary patterns of sperm size and number within two taxa with external fertilization but differences in their reproductive biology. In frogs, sperm swim slowly but for up to hours as they penetrate the gelatinous egg coating, whereas fish sperm typically swim fast, are very short-lived (seconds to minutes), and often face a relatively higher risk of being moved away from the ova by currents. Our phylogenetic models and path analyses revealed different trajectories of ejaculate evolution in these two taxa. Sperm size and number responded primarily to variation in sperm competition in the anurans, but more strongly to egg number and water turbulence in the fishes. Whereas the results across anurans align with the general expectation that sexual selection is the main driver of ejaculate evolution, our findings across the fishes suggest that sperm limitation has been underappreciated.

Sperm competition and the evolution of precopulatory weapons: Testis size and amplexus position, but not arm strength, affect fertilization success in a chorusing frog

Trade-offs between pre- and postcopulatory traits influence their evolution, and male expenditure on such traits is predicted to depend on the number of competitors, the benefits from investing in weapons, and the risk and intensity of sperm competition. Males of the chorusing frog Crinia georgiana use their arms as weapons in contest competition. Previously, we showed that increased numbers of rivals elevated the risk and intensity of sperm competition due to multimale amplexus, and caused a reversal in the direction of precopulatory selection on arm girth. Here, we focused on the factors affecting postcopulatory fertilization success during group spawning, using paternity data from natural choruses. Competitive fertilization success depended on the time spent amplexed and amplexus position. Relative testes size but not arm girth, contributed to fertilization success, but the effect of testes size depended on amplexus position. Our findings offer within species empirical support for recent sperm competition models that incorporate precopulatory male-male competition, and show why an understanding of the evolution of animal weapons requires a consideration of both pre- and postcopulatory episodes of sexual selection.

Altitudinal variation in male reproductive investment in a polyandrous frog species (Hyla gongshanensis jingdongensis)

Competition for fertilization in multi-male group spawning can drive variation in male reproductive investment (i.e., testis mass and sperm size). Inter-population comparisons of variation in energetic availability and allocation along geographical gradients allow insights into the mechanisms shaping the reproductive investments of animals. Although inter-population differences in female reproductive investment (i.e., clutch size and egg size) have been studied extensively across a wide range of taxa, little information on variation in reproductive investment in males is available. Here, we studied altitudinal variation in testis mass and sperm length among three populations in the Jingdong tree frog (Hyla gongshanensis jingdongensis), a polyandrous species, in Yunnan Province in China. The results showed that individuals exhibited smaller testes at higher altitudes while testes mass was positively correlated with body size, body condition and age. Longer sperm length was observed in the middle-altitude population. Moreover, we found that sperm number was positively correlated with testes mass and sperm length. Our correlational findings suggest that environmental constraints at high altitude select for less investment in testes and offspring number.

Male-male clasping may be part of an alternative reproductive tactic in Xenopus laevis

Male Xenopus laevis frogs have been observed to clasp other males in a sustained, amplectant position, the purpose of which is unknown. We examined three possible hypotheses for this counter-intuitive behavior: 1) clasping males fail to discriminate the sex of the frogs they clasp; 2) male-male clasping is an aggressive or dominant behavior; or 3) that males clasp other males to gain proximity to breeding events and possibly engage in sperm competition. Our data, gathered through a series of behavioral experiments in the laboratory, refute the first two hypotheses. We found that males did not clasp indiscriminately, but showed a sex preference, with most males preferentially clasping a female, but a proportion preferentially clasping another male. Males that clasped another male when there was no female present were less likely to “win” reproductive access in a male-male-female triad, indicating that they did not establish dominance through clasping. However, those males did gain proximity to oviposition by continued male-male clasping in the presence of the female. Thus, our findings are consistent with, but cannot confirm, the third hypothesis of male-male clasping as an alternative reproductive tactic.

Post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence in a wild vertebrate

There is growing interest in sperm senescence, both in its underlying mechanisms and evolutionary consequences, because it can impact the evolution of numerous life history traits. Previous studies have documented various types of sperm senescence, but evidence of post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence in wild animals is lacking. To assess such senescence, we studied within-season changes in sperm motility in the common toad (Bufo bufo), where males produce all sperm prior to the breeding season. We found that males exposed to experimentally induced re-hibernation at the start of the breeding season, that is to experimentally lowered metabolic rates, stored sperm of significantly higher motility than males that were kept under seminatural conditions without females throughout the breeding season. This finding indicates that re-hibernation slows normal rates of sperm ageing and constitutes the first evidence to our knowledge of post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence in a wild vertebrate. We also found that in males kept in seminatural conditions, sperm motility was positively related to the number of matings a male achieved. Thus, our results suggest that post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence does not have a genetically fixed rate and may be modulated by temperature and possibly by mating opportunities.

Sperm depletion and a test of the phenotype-linked fertility hypothesis in Gray Treefrogs (Hyla versicolor)

The phenotype-linked fertility hypothesis (PLFH) predicts that ejaculate characteristics correlate with male phenotype, and that females may select for exaggerated phenotypes to guarantee high fertilization success. Female Gray Treefrogs ( Hyla versicolor LeConte, 1825) prefer males with long-duration calls and (or) calls produced at a fast rate. I tested the prediction that call duration or call rate were indicators of sperm number or viability. To assess whether female H. versicolor might benefit by identifying males with low sperm numbers, I examined the effect of mating history on sperm number and looked for evidence of sperm depletion. My study found no support for the PLFH in relation to call quality, as neither sperm number nor viability was related to call duration. I found that sperm stores are severely reduced after a single mating, and that sperm stores of males calling late in the season are often more similar to those of depleted males than unmated males. Thus, calling males may attempt to attract females without the sperm numbers necessary to fertilize the entire clutch. However, selection for females to identify males with high fertilization success may be low when all other factors that affect reproductive success (e.g., genetic benefits) are considered.

Sperm morphology, motility and fertilisation capacity in the myobatrachid frog Crinia georgiana

Sperm traits have been found to vary between individuals within populations in a variety of taxa. Sperm motility, morphometry and viability may be expected to have important effects on male fertility, although previous studies have found varying patterns, especially in external fertilisers. In the present study, we examined the effects of sperm swimming velocity, the proportion of motile spermatozoa, sperm head and tail length and the proportion of live spermatozoa on fertilisation success in the externally fertilising myobatrachid frog Crinia georgiana using IVF techniques and by controlling sperm numbers. We found no effect of any of the sperm traits we measured on IVF success. Neither did we find any relationship between sperm morphology and sperm performance. There was a negative relationship between sperm viability and male body size, which could be a function of age or an alternative tactic of differential investment in spermatozoa by smaller-sized males using sneak tactics in multiple matings. In contrast with most externally fertilising aquatic organisms, high rates of fertilisation appear to be achieved in C. georgiana with relatively low sperm swimming speeds.

Sperm competitiveness in frogs: slow and steady wins the race

When sperm compete to fertilize available ova, selection is expected to favour ejaculate traits that contribute to a male's fertilization success. While there is much evidence to show that selection favours increased numbers of sperm, only a handful of empirical studies have examined how variation in sperm form and function contributes to competitive fertilization success. Here, we examine selection acting on sperm form and function in the externally fertilizing myobatrachid frog, Crinia georgiana. Using in vitro fertilization techniques and controlling for variation in the number of sperm contributed by males in competitive situations, we show that males with a greater proportion of motile sperm, and motile sperm with slower swimming velocities, have an advantage when competing for fertilizations. Sperm morphology and the degree of genetic similarity between putative sires and the female had no influence on competitive fertilization success. These unusual patterns of selection might explain why frog sperm typically exhibit relatively slow swimming speeds and sustained longevity.