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Beck KB, Farine DR, Firth JA, Sheldon BC. Variation in local population size predicts social network structure in wild songbirds. J Anim Ecol 2023; 92:2348-2362. [PMID: 37837224 PMCID: PMC10952437 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.14015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
The structure of animal societies is a key determinant of many ecological and evolutionary processes. Yet, we know relatively little about the factors and mechanisms that underpin detailed social structure. Among other factors, social structure can be influenced by habitat configuration. By shaping animal movement decisions, heterogeneity in habitat features, such as vegetation and the availability of resources, can influence the spatiotemporal distribution of individuals and subsequently key socioecological properties such as the local population size and density. Differences in local population size and density can impact opportunities for social associations and may thus drive substantial variation in local social structure. Here, we investigated spatiotemporal variation in population size at 65 distinct locations in a small songbird, the great tit (Parus major) and its effect on social network structure. We first explored the within-location consistency of population size from weekly samples and whether the observed variation in local population size was predicted by the underlying habitat configuration. Next, we created social networks from the birds' foraging associations at each location for each week and examined if local population size affected social structure. We show that population size is highly repeatable within locations across weeks and years and that some of the observed variation in local population size was predicted by the underlying habitat, with locations closer to the forest edge having on average larger population sizes. Furthermore, we show that local population size affected social structure inferred by four global network metrics. Using simple simulations, we then reveal that much of the observed social structure is shaped by social processes. Across different population sizes, the birds' social structure was largely explained by their preference to forage in flocks. In addition, over and above effects of social foraging, social preferences between birds (i.e. social relationships) shaped certain network features such as the extent of realized social connections. Our findings thus suggest that individual social decisions substantially contribute to shaping certain social network features over and above effects of population size alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina B. Beck
- Department of Biology, Edward Grey InstituteUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Damien R. Farine
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental StudiesUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraAustralian Capital TerritoryAustralia
- Department of Collective BehaviourMax Planck Institute of Animal BehaviourKonstanzGermany
| | - Josh A. Firth
- Department of Biology, Edward Grey InstituteUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Ben C. Sheldon
- Department of Biology, Edward Grey InstituteUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
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2
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Camerlink I, Scheck K, Cadman T, Rault JL. Effects of preferential social associations on pigs' response to weaning. Animal 2023; 17:100846. [PMID: 37263131 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2023.100846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Farm animals can form preferential associations within their social group. Research has shown that the presence of familiar conspecifics can help to cope with stressful situations. Nonetheless, whether the strength of the relationship matters is largely unknown. Our aim was to investigate the influence of the strength of the social relationship between familiar partners during a stressful event. Pigs (n = 116) were observed pre-weaning for their social interactions and spatial proximity with littermates. From this, preferential associations were calculated based on sociality indices of non-agonistic social behaviours (SIsoc) and spatial proximity (SIprox). Pigs were weaned into groups of unfamiliar pigs together with one littermate. The partner was selected based on the strength of their relationship pre-weaning, with pairs from across the SIsoc and SIprox distribution. SIprox and non-agonistic social behaviour (SIsoc) were included in the statistical analysis as measures of relationship strength. Focal pigs were observed postweaning for their social behaviour and spatial proximity, skin lesions and growth, and salivary cortisol concentration pre-weaning and at 4 h and 48 h postweaning. The strength of the social relationship pre-weaning did not significantly influence the behaviour or proximity towards the familiar partner postweaning, or the amount of skin lesions or weight gain. Pigs who were weaned with a littermate with whom they were strongly affiliated based on active social behaviour (SIsoc) tended to have a lower proportional increase in their cortisol concentration after weaning (P = 0.07). Pigs differed in their behaviour towards the familiar partner as compared to the unfamiliar pigs, by directing more aggression towards unfamiliar pigs (P < 0.001), and more non-agonistic social behaviours towards the familiar pig (P < 0.001). The familiar partner was on average in 12.2% of the observations the nearest neighbour, which in small groups did not differ from random choice while in large groups, this occurrence was higher than expected by chance. The results show that pigs clearly distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar pigs, but that the strength of the relationship with a familiar partner seems to have limited effects at weaning. Although preferential associations in young pigs seem weak, studies on older pigs are needed to investigate whether this is due to the relatively little time they have to establish social preferences prior to weaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Camerlink
- Institute of Animal Welfare Science, University for Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Genetics and Animal Biotechnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Postępu 36a, 05-552 Jastrzębiec, Poland
| | - K Scheck
- Institute of Animal Welfare Science, University for Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - T Cadman
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Animal and Veterinary Sciences Research Group, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), West Mains Rd, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK
| | - J-L Rault
- Institute of Animal Welfare Science, University for Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
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3
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Costa RFP, Romano V, Pereira AS, Hart JDA, MacIntosh A, Hayashi M. Mountain gorillas benefit from social distancing too: Close proximity from tourists affects gorillas' sociality. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.12859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel F. P. Costa
- Research Department Japan Monkey Center Inuyama Aichi Japan
- Primate Cognition Research Group, Centre for Philosophy of Science of the University of Lisbon Lisbon Portugal
| | - Valéria Romano
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178 Strasbourg France
- IMBE, Aix Marseille Univ., Avignon Univ., CNRS, IRD Marseille France
| | - André S. Pereira
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, University of Exeter Exeter UK
- Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences University of Coimbra Coimbra Portugal
| | - Jordan D. A. Hart
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, University of Exeter Exeter UK
| | - Andrew MacIntosh
- Inuyama Campus, Kyoto University Wildlife Research Center Inuyama Japan
- Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Misato Hayashi
- Research Department Japan Monkey Center Inuyama Aichi Japan
- Chubu Gakuin University Kakamigahara Japan
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4
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Evans JC, Hodgson DJ, Boogert NJ, Silk MJ. Group size and modularity interact to shape the spread of infection and information through animal societies. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021; 75:163. [PMID: 34866760 PMCID: PMC8626757 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03102-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Social interactions between animals can provide many benefits, including the ability to gain useful environmental information through social learning. However, these social contacts can also facilitate the transmission of infectious diseases through a population. Animals engaging in social interactions therefore face a trade-off between the potential informational benefits and the risk of acquiring disease. Theoretical models have suggested that modular social networks, associated with the formation of groups or sub-groups, can slow spread of infection by trapping it within particular groups. However, these social structures will not necessarily impact the spread of information in the same way if its transmission follows a "complex contagion", e.g. through individuals disproportionally copying the majority (conformist learning). Here we use simulation models to demonstrate that modular networks can promote the spread of information relative to the spread of infection, but only when the network is fragmented and group sizes are small. We show that the difference in transmission between information and disease is maximised for more well-connected social networks when the likelihood of transmission is intermediate. Our results have important implications for understanding the selective pressures operating on the social structure of animal societies, revealing that highly fragmented networks such as those formed in fission-fusion social groups and multilevel societies can be effective in modulating the infection-information trade-off for individuals within them. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-021-03102-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian C. Evans
- Deparment of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David J. Hodgson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
| | - Neeltje J. Boogert
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
| | - Matthew J. Silk
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
- National Institute of Mathematical and Biological Synthesis (NIMBioS), University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN USA
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5
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Heinen VK, Pitera AM, Sonnenberg BR, Benedict LM, Bridge ES, Farine DR, Pravosudov VV. Food discovery is associated with different reliance on social learning and lower cognitive flexibility across environments in a food-caching bird. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202843. [PMID: 34004135 PMCID: PMC8131126 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Social learning is a primary mechanism for information acquisition in social species. Despite many benefits, social learning may be disadvantageous when independent learning is more efficient. For example, searching independently may be more advantageous when food sources are ephemeral and unpredictable. Individual differences in cognitive abilities can also be expected to influence social information use. Specifically, better spatial memory can make a given environment more predictable for an individual by allowing it to better track food sources. We investigated how resident food-caching chickadees discovered multiple novel food sources in both harsher, less predictable high elevation and milder, more predictable low elevation winter environments. Chickadees at high elevation were faster at discovering multiple novel food sources and discovered more food sources than birds at low elevation. While birds at both elevations used social information, the contribution of social learning to food discovery was significantly lower at high elevation. At both elevations, chickadees with better spatial cognitive flexibility were slower at discovering food sources, likely because birds with lower spatial cognitive flexibility are worse at tracking natural resources and therefore spend more time exploring. Overall, our study supported the prediction that harsh environments should favour less reliance on social learning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Angela M. Pitera
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | | | | | - Eli S. Bridge
- Oklahoma Biological Survey, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Damien R. Farine
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
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6
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Del Mar Delgado M, Arlettaz R, Bettega C, Brambilla M, de Gabriel Hernando M, España A, Fernández-González Á, Fernández-Martín Á, Gil JA, Hernández-Gómez S, Laiolo P, Resano-Mayor J, Obeso JR, Pedrini P, Roa-Álvarez I, Schano C, Scridel D, Strinella E, Toranzo I, Korner-Nievergelt F. Spatio-temporal variation in the wintering associations of an alpine bird. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210690. [PMID: 34034515 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Many animals make behavioural changes to cope with winter conditions, being gregariousness a common strategy. Several factors have been invoked to explain why gregariousness may evolve during winter, with individuals coming together and separating as they trade off the different costs and benefits of living in groups. These trade-offs may, however, change over space and time as a response to varying environmental conditions. Despite its importance, little is known about the factors triggering gregarious behaviour during winter and its change in response to variation in weather conditions is poorly documented. Here, we aimed at quantifying large-scale patterns in wintering associations over 23 years of the white-winged snowfinch Montifringilla nivalis nivalis. We found that individuals gather in larger groups at sites with harsh wintering conditions. Individuals at colder sites reunite later and separate earlier in the season than at warmer sites. However, the magnitude and phenology of wintering associations are ruled by changes in weather conditions. When the temperature increased or the levels of precipitation decreased, group size substantially decreased, and individuals stayed united in groups for a shorter time. These results shed light on factors driving gregariousness and points to shifting winter climate as an important factor influencing this behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Mar Delgado
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UMIB, UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University - Campus Mieres, 33600 Mieres, Spain
| | - Raphaël Arlettaz
- Division of Conservation Biology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Chiara Bettega
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UMIB, UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University - Campus Mieres, 33600 Mieres, Spain
| | - Mattia Brambilla
- LIPU/BirdLife Italia, Via Udine 3/A, I-43122, Parma, Italy.,Museo delle Scienze, Sezione Zoologia dei Vertebrati, Corso della Scienza e del Lavoro 3, 38123 Trento, Italy.,Fondazione Lombardia per l'Ambiente, Settore Biodiversità e Aree protette, Largo 10 luglio 1976 1, 20822 Seveso, MB, Italy
| | | | - Antonio España
- Grup d'anellament PARUS, Salze 36, 08186 Lliça d'Amunt, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | - Juan Antonio Gil
- Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos, Plaza San Pedro Nolasco 1, 4 F, 50001 Zaragoza, Spain.,Estación Zaragoza-Delicias, Grupo Aragón de Anillamiento Científico de Aves, c/Rioja, 33, 50011 Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Paola Laiolo
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UMIB, UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University - Campus Mieres, 33600 Mieres, Spain
| | - Jaime Resano-Mayor
- Division of Conservation Biology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.,Grup d'anellament PARUS, Salze 36, 08186 Lliça d'Amunt, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Ramón Obeso
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UMIB, UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University - Campus Mieres, 33600 Mieres, Spain
| | - Paolo Pedrini
- Museo delle Scienze, Sezione Zoologia dei Vertebrati, Corso della Scienza e del Lavoro 3, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | | | - Christian Schano
- Swiss Ornithological Institute, Seerose 1, 6204 Sempach, Switzerland
| | - Davide Scridel
- Museo delle Scienze, Sezione Zoologia dei Vertebrati, Corso della Scienza e del Lavoro 3, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Eliseo Strinella
- Reparto Carabinieri Biodiversità L'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Ignasi Toranzo
- Grup d'anellament PARUS, Salze 36, 08186 Lliça d'Amunt, Barcelona, Spain
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7
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Madsen AE, Vander Meiden LN, Shizuka D. Social partners and temperature jointly affect morning foraging activity of small birds in winter. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Daily foraging activity of small wintering birds is classically thought to be driven by the need to gather enough energy reserves to survive each night. A separate line of research has shown that sociality is a major driver in winter foraging activities in many species. Here, we used wintering birds as a study system to move toward an integrative understanding of the influence of energy requirements and sociality on foraging ecology. We used RFID-enabled feeders in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA in January–March 2019 to measure foraging activity in two species (downy woodpeckers, Dryobates pubescens, and white-breasted nuthatches, Sitta carolinensis). We analyzed the relationship between overnight temperature and morning foraging activity and found that lowest overnight temperature was weakly correlated with morning visitation at feeders. We then used a network approach to ask if flock associations explain similarity in birds’ foraging activity. In both species, individuals with stronger associations in a social network were more likely to share similar feeder activity, and an index of social partners’ activity explained foraging activity better than overnight temperature. This brings forth new questions about the interplay between individual response to temperature and social factors in shaping how small animals cope with harsh winter conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia E Madsen
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | | | - Daizaburo Shizuka
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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8
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Robitaille AL, Webber QMR, Turner JW, Vander Wal E. The problem and promise of scale in multilayer animal social networks. Curr Zool 2021; 67:113-123. [PMID: 33654495 PMCID: PMC7901766 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoaa052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Scale remains a foundational concept in ecology. Spatial scale, for instance, has become a central consideration in the way we understand landscape ecology and animal space use. Meanwhile, scale-dependent social processes can range from fine-scale interactions to co-occurrence and overlapping home ranges. Furthermore, sociality can vary within and across seasons. Multilayer networks promise the explicit integration of the social, spatial, and temporal contexts. Given the complex interplay of sociality and animal space use in heterogeneous landscapes, there remains an important gap in our understanding of the influence of scale on animal social networks. Using an empirical case study, we discuss ways of considering social, spatial, and temporal scale in the context of multilayer caribou social networks. Effective integration of social and spatial processes, including biologically meaningful scales, within the context of animal social networks is an emerging area of research. We incorporate perspectives that link the social environment to spatial processes across scales in a multilayer context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alec L Robitaille
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Quinn M R Webber
- Cognitive and Behavioural Ecology Interdisciplinary Program, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Julie W Turner
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Eric Vander Wal
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1B 3X9, Canada
- Cognitive and Behavioural Ecology Interdisciplinary Program, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1B 3X9, Canada
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9
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Smith JE, Pinter-Wollman N. Observing the unwatchable: Integrating automated sensing, naturalistic observations and animal social network analysis in the age of big data. J Anim Ecol 2020; 90:62-75. [PMID: 33020914 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the 4.5 decades since Altmann (1974) published her seminal paper on the methods for the observational study of behaviour, automated detection and analysis of social interaction networks have fundamentally transformed the ways that ecologists study social behaviour. Methodological developments for collecting data remotely on social behaviour involve indirect inference of associations, direct recordings of interactions and machine vision. These recent technological advances are improving the scale and resolution with which we can dissect interactions among animals. They are also revealing new intricacies of animal social interactions at spatial and temporal resolutions as well as in ecological contexts that have been hidden from humans, making the unwatchable seeable. We first outline how these technological applications are permitting researchers to collect exquisitely detailed information with little observer bias. We further recognize new emerging challenges from these new reality-mining approaches. While technological advances in automating data collection and its analysis are moving at an unprecedented rate, we urge ecologists to thoughtfully combine these new tools with classic behavioural and ecological monitoring methods to place our understanding of animal social networks within fundamental biological contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Noa Pinter-Wollman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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10
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de Freslon I, Peralta JM, Strappini AC, Monti G. Understanding Allogrooming Through a Dynamic Social Network Approach: An Example in a Group of Dairy Cows. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:535. [PMID: 32851054 PMCID: PMC7417353 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
For gregarious species such as domestic cattle, the social environment is a very important determinant of their welfare and fitness. Understanding the complexity of cows' relationships can assist the development of management practices that are more integrated with the cows' social behavioral processes. The two aims of this study were: (1) to determine the dynamics of affiliative relationships, as indicated by allogrooming, by means of stochastic actor-oriented modeling, in dairy cows during early lactation; (2) to explore the underlying processes and the individual attributes, such as age, social rank and reproductive state, that could shape network pattern changes in grooming contacts between individual. We observed the allogrooming behavior of a dynamic group of 38 dairy cows for 4 h per day for 30 days. Using stochastic actor-oriented models, we modeled the dynamics of weekly contacts and studied how structural processes (e.g., reciprocity, transitivity, or popularity) and individual attributes (i.e., age, social rank, and reproductive state) influence network changes. We found that cows tended to groom individuals that had previously groomed them, implying a possible cooperation. Cows that groomed more actively did not appear to have a preference for specific individuals in the herd, and in return, tended to be groomed by fewer cows over time. Older individuals groomed more cows than younger ones, indicating that allogrooming could be related to seniority. Cows groomed mainly individuals of similar age, suggesting that familiarity and growing up together enhanced social grooming. Over time, cows with higher social rank were groomed by fewer cows and individuals recently reintroduced to the group groomed more herdmates. The study of social network dynamics can be used to better understand the complexity and non-linearity of cow relationships. Our findings, along with further research, can complement and strengthen the design of improved management practices that are more in line with the natural social behavior of cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inés de Freslon
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Preventive Veterinary Medicine Institute, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - J M Peralta
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, United States
| | - Ana C Strappini
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Animal Science Institute, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Gustavo Monti
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Preventive Veterinary Medicine Institute, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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