Dialysis Shunt-Associated Steal Syndrome with Autogenous Hemodialyis Accesses: Proposal for a New Classification Based on Clinical Results

Dialysis associated steal syndromes. A narrative review

BACKGROUND

To review contemporary concepts in the genesis of Dialysis Access Steal Syndrome (DASS) and its current management.

METHODS

An electronic search of literature from 1960 to 2020 in Pubmed and the Cochrane library was conducted and practice guidelines were examined. Search terms included dialysis, steal, ischemia, access and ESRD. Clinical presentation, pathophysiology, risk factors, diagnostic techniques and management outcomes of extremity ischemia following dialysis access creation were reviewed.

RESULTS

Symptomatic steal occurs in 4-10% of patietns after creation of hemodialysis access creation. Risk factos include brachial based fistula, diabetes, female sex, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, tobacco use, age more than 60 and hypertension. Diagnosis is mainly clinical and can be aided by non invasive testing. Correction o finflow stenosis, Distal revasulatisation with interval ligation, revision using distal inflow or other techniques are useful for fistula preservation.

CONCLUSIONS

Dialysis associated steal syndromes have a complex haemodynamic causation. Clinical presentation is diagnostic; however when the diagnosis is uncertain adjunctive noninvasive perfusion tests, duplex and other imaging amy be required. Management is guided by anatomic, patient and disease-related considerations.

Proximalization of the Arterial Inflow (PAI) in Patients with Dialysis Access-Induced Ischemic Syndrome: First Report on Long-Term Clinical Results

Purpose

Proximalization of the arterial inflow (PAI) is a promising technique which was introduced several years ago as a treatment option for patients with dialysis access-induced ischemic syndrome (DAIIS). In our institutions we have been performing PAI since 2003 and have seen positive clinical results. The aim of this prospective survey is to present the long-term results of PAI.

Methods

Between 2003 and 2008, forty PAI operations were performed in our institutions: 4 patients had acute pain and sensorimotor dysfunction with no lesions, 33 had small acral lesions, and 3 had extended lesions following the creation of autogenous fistulas. In 22 cases a heparinized graft was used and in 18 cases a regular PTFE-graft. Criteria for successful treeatment of the disease course were evaluated by clinical and ultrasound examinations.

Results

In 36 cases (90%), PAI led to clinical success which was permanent in 33 patients (82%) seen in the follow-up period of 9 to 40 months. Primary patency was 62% after 12 months and secondary patency was 75% after 18 months. Heparinized grafts led to better patency rates. In 3 out of the 4 patients with large acral lesions, graft explantation was necessary due to infection or failing success.

Conclusions

Based on our experience, clinical long-term results are successful in certain patients with DAIIS. The aim for the near future should be a better patency rate to minimize the need for reoperations. In cases of extended limb necrosis/gangrene results were poor. In such patients primary closure of the access must be discussed.

Combined Endovascular Treatment with Distal Radial Artery Coil Embolization and Angioplasty in Steal Syndrome Associated with Forearm Dialysis Fistula

PURPOSE

The present study was performed to define the results of the endovascular treatment with angioplasty and distal radial artery embolization in ischemic steal syndrome associated with forearm arteriovenous accesses.

METHOD

The cases referred to our interventional radiology unit with symptoms and physical examination findings suggestive of ischemic steal syndrome were retrospectively evaluated first by Doppler ultrasonography, and then by angiography. Cases with proximal artery stenosis were applied angioplasty, and those with steal syndrome underwent coil embolization to distal radial artery.

RESULTS

Of 589 patients who underwent endovascular intervention for dialysis arteriovenous fistulae (AVF)-associated problems, 6 (1.01 %) (5 female, 1 males; mean age 62 (range 41-78) with forearm fistula underwent combined endovascular treatment for steal syndrome. In addition to steal phenomenon, there were stenosis and/or occlusion in proximal radial and/or ulnar artery in 6 patients concurrently. Embolization of distal radial artery and angioplasty to proximal arterial stenoses were performed in all patients. Ischemic symptoms were eliminated in all patients and the AVF were in use at the time of study. In one patient, ischemic symptoms recurring 6 months later were alleviated by repeat angioplasty of ulnar artery.

CONCLUSION

In palmar arch steal syndrome affecting forearm fistulae, combined distal radial embolization and angioplasty is also an effective treatment method in the presence of proximal radial and ulnar arterial stenoses and occlusions.

Intervention for Access-Induced Ischemia: Which Option is the Best?

Introduction

Access-induced ischemia is a rare but important surgical complication with potentially devastating long-term results. The question remains which therapeutic option is the best for the different forms of ischemia.

Method

A review of the literature concerning access-induced ischemia (classification, treatment) was performed; furthermore, our own experience of more than 300 cases with ischemia was discussed.

Results

There are four different stages of dialysis access-induced ischemia syndrome (DAIIS) that need adequate treatment: stage I conservatively, stage II fistula banding, stage III proximalization operation or distal revascularization interval ligation and stage IV closure of the access.

Discussion

According to the many publications and to our own experience, there are good therapeutic options for many of the patients with DAIIS. However, in case of extended lesions/gangrene, closure of the access should be discussed in time before major amputation becomes necessary.

Effectiveness of skin perfusion pressure monitoring during surgery for an ischemic steal syndrome associated refractory ulcer

We describe an 80-year-old man with end-stage renal disease due to type 2 diabetes who had been maintained on hemodialysis for 9 years. He developed refractory ulcers from an abraded wound in the right hand of his access arm. The arteriovenous fistula (AVF) was located between the right brachial artery and the median antecubital vein draining into the cephalic vein and the deep veins close to the elbow. The blood flow of the right brachial artery measured by using Doppler ultrasonography was 920 ml/min. On the contrary, the radial and ulnar arteries were poorly palpable near the wrist, and ultrasonography could not be performed accurately because of a high degree of calcification. The skin perfusion pressure (SPP) of the first finger on the affected side decreased to 22 mmHg. However, the SPP improved to approximately 40 mmHg upon blocking an inflow into the deep vein. According to SPP data, only a communicating branch of the deep vein was ligated, and the AVF itself was preserved. One month after surgery, the skin ulcer healed, and maintenance hemodialysis was performed by using the preserved cephalic vein for blood access.In conclusion, we successfully treated a refractory wound associated with steal syndrome, without terminating the AVF. SPP-guided surgery may be safe and effective to adjust the blood flow in patients with AVF having steal syndrome.

The value of duplex ultrasound in the prediction of brachial dialysis access induced ischemia syndrome (DAIIS)

PURPOSE

Dialysis access induced ischemia syndrome (DAIIS) is a serious complication of Vascular Access (VA) surgery. It mainly occurs in brachial VA. The aim of this prospective study was to ascertain whether early detection of DAIIS following brachial VA is possible, enabling immediate therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred and three patients undergoing brachial VA-surgery were surveyed. Duplex ultrasound was performed before and directly after surgery and the flow amplitudes of the distal ulnar and radial arteries were measured. Clinical follow up was performed after two months. In addition, specific patient characteristics were assessed.

RESULTS

Sixteen patients (15.5%) developed DAIIS with the need for surgical intervention. Statistical analysis revealed a statistically significant correlation between post-operative flow amplitudes of the distal arteries measured by duplex ultrasound and the development of DAIIS.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our data, measurement of the flow-amplitudes of distal arteries by duplex ultrasound shortly after surgery predicts the development of DAIIS. This makes immediate therapy possible. We recommend early post-operative duplex-ultrasound investigation following the creation of a brachial VA.

Ischemic Monomelic Neuropathy: A Rare but Important Complication after Hemodialysis Access Placement - a Review

The creation of a vascular access for hemodialysis is a frequently performed procedure. Ischemic monomelic neuropathy (IMN) is a rare, but important complication of hemodialysis access (HA) procedures, which can lead to severe and nonreversible limb dysfunctions. Therefore, in any case of postoperative neurological malfunction, immediate neurological investigations should be undertaken. If IMN is diagnosed, improvement of distal perfusion should be established without delay. IMN is a form of hemodialysis-associated ischemic syndrome (as the so-called steal syndrome), but experiences with this complication are small. Every case of IMN should be carefully documented and if possible published, to gain more experience about this rare but important complication.

Time of onset in haemodialysis access-induced distal ischaemia (HAIDI) is related to the access type

BACKGROUND

A small portion of haemodialysis patients develop hand ischaemia (HAIDI, haemodialysis access-induced distal ischaemia) in the presence of an arteriovenous access (AVA). It is unknown if the time of onset of ischaemia is related to the type of AVA. This review aims to investigate if a relationship is present between the type of AVA and the time of onset and intensity of HAIDI.

METHODS

Standard databases and reference lists of the pertinent literature were systematically searched. HAIDI was classified as 'acute' (<24 h after routine access construction), 'subacute' (within 1 month) or 'chronic' (>1 month). Location, type and follow-up of AVA were tabulated.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies reporting on surgically or percutaneously corrected HAIDI patients (n = 464) fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Acute HAIDI strongly (88%) correlated with non-autogenous AVA. In contrast, chronic HAIDI was predominantly (91%) observed following autogenous AVA based on the cubital segment of the brachial artery. A simple clinical classification for chronic HAIDI guiding treatment strategies is proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

Hand ischaemia occurring early after routine access surgery is usually related to grafts and not to autogenous access construction. If patients have several risk factors for acute hand ischaemia (diabetes), nephrologists and vascular surgeons may choose an autogenous AVA. A disadvantage of an autogenous access is its association with chronic hand ischaemia, particularly if constructed with a brachial artery.