Tube Thoracostomy: A Structured Review of Case Reports and a Standardized Format for Reporting Complications

Ultrasound Investigation of the Fifth Intercostal Space Landmark for Chest Tube Thoracostomy Site Selection in Pediatric Patients

OBJECTIVES

Chest tube thoracostomy site selection is typically chosen through landmark identification of the fifth intercostal space (ICS). Using point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS), studies have shown this site to be potentially unsafe in many adults; however, no study has evaluated this in children. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the safety of the fifth ICS for pediatric chest tube placement, with the secondary aim to identify patient factors that correlate with an unsafe fifth ICS.

METHODS

This was an observational study using POCUS to evaluate the safety of the fifth ICS for chest tube thoracostomy placement using a convenience sample of pediatric emergency department patients. Safety was defined as the absence of the diaphragm appearing within or above the fifth ICS during either tidal or maximal respiration. Univariate and multivariable analyses were used to identify patient factors that correlated with an unsafe fifth ICS.

RESULTS

Among all patients, 10.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 6.45-16.1) of diaphragm measurements crossed into or above the fifth ICS during tidal respiration and 27.2% (95% CI 19.0-37.3) during maximal respiration. The diaphragm crossed the fifth ICS more frequently on the right when compared with the left, with an overall rate of 45.0% (95% CI 36.1-54.3) of right diaphragms crossing during maximal respiration. In both univariate and multivariate analyses, a 1-kg/m 2 increase in body mass index was associated with an increase of 10% or more in the odds of crossing during both tidal and maximal respiration ( P = 0.003 or less).

CONCLUSIONS

A significant number of pediatric patients have diaphragms that cross into or above the fifth ICS, suggesting that placement of a chest tube thoracostomy at this site would pose a significant complication risk. POCUS can quickly and accurately identify these unsafe sites, and we recommend it be used before pediatric chest tube thoracostomy.

Complications Rate and a Multidimensional Analysis of Their Causes of Tube Thoracostomy: A Mixed-Methods Study

INTRODUCTION

Tube thoracostomy (TT) complications are common in respiratory medicine. However, the prevalence of complications and risk factors is unknown, and data on countermeasures are lacking.

METHODS

This was a mixed-methods retrospective observational and qualitative study. This retrospective observational study included TT performed on patients admitted to the Department of Respiratory Medicine at our University Hospital between January 1, 2019, and August 31, 2022 (n=169). The primary endpoint was the incidence of TT-related complications. We reviewed the association between complications and patient- and medical-related factors as secondary endpoints. In this qualitative study, we theorized the background of physicians' susceptibility to TT-related complications based on the grounded theory approach.

RESULTS

 Complications were observed in 20 (11.8%) of the 169 procedures; however, they were unrelated to 30-day mortality. Poor activities of daily living (odds ratio 4.3, p=0.007) and regular administration of oral steroids (odds ratio 3.1, p=0.025) were identified as patient-related risk factors. Physicians undergoing training caused the most complications, and the absence of a senior physician at the procedure site (odds ratio 3.5, p=0.031) was identified as a medical risk factor. Based on this qualitative study, we developed a new model for TT complication rates consistent with the relationship between physicians' professional skills, professional identity, and work environments.

CONCLUSIONS

Complications associated with TT are common. Therefore, it is necessary to implement measures similar to those identified in this study. Particularly, a supportive environment should be established for the training of physicians.

Comprehensive Review of Chest Tube Management: A Review

Importance

Thoracostomy, or chest tube placement, is used in a variety of clinical indications and can be lifesaving in certain circumstances. There have been developments and modifications to thoracostomy tubes, or chest tubes, over time, but they continue to be a staple in the thoracic surgeon's toolbox as well as adjacent specialties in medicine. This review will provide the nonexpert clinician a comprehensive understanding of the types of chest tubes, indications for their effective use, and key management details for ideal patient outcomes.

Observations

This review describes the types of chest tubes, indications for use, techniques for placement, common anatomical landmarks that are encountered with placement and management, and an overview of complications that may arise with tube thoracostomy. In addition, the future direction of chest tubes is explored, as well as the management of chest tubes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions and Relevance

Chest tube management is subjective, but the compilation of data can inform best practices and safe application to successfully manage the pleural space and ameliorate acquired pleural space disease.

Beyond the tube: Can we reduce chest tube complications in trauma patients?

BACKGROUND

We sought to identify opportunities for interventions to mitigate complications of tube thoracostomy (TT).

METHODS

Retrospective review of all trauma patients undergoing TT from 6/30/2016-6/30/2019. Multivariable logistic regression identified independent predictors of complications.

RESULTS

Out of 451 patients, 171 (37.9%) had at least one TT malpositioning or complication. Placement in the emergency department, placement by emergency medicine physicians, and body mass index >30 kg/m² were independent predictors of complication. Malpositioning increased the likelihood of early complication (6.5%-53.5%), and early complication increased the likelihood of late complication (4.3%-13.6%). Patients with a late complication had, on average, a 7.56 day longer hospital stay than patients without a late complication.

CONCLUSION

TT complications were associated with placement in the emergency department, placement by emergency medicine physicians, and BMI>30 kg/m². We identified associations between malpositioning, early complications, and late complications, and demonstrated that TT complications impact patient outcomes.

Randomized Clinical Trial of 14-French (14F) Pigtail Catheters versus 28-32F Chest Tubes in the Management of Patients with Traumatic Hemothorax and Hemopneumothorax

Introduction

Traditional management of traumatic hemothorax/hemopneumothorax (HTX/HPTX) has been insertion of large-bore 32–40 French (Fr) chest tubes (CTs). Retrospective studies have shown 14Fr percutaneous pigtail catheters (PCs) are equally effective as CTs. Our aim was to compare effectiveness between PCs and CTs by performing the first randomized controlled trial (RCT). We hypothesize PCs work equally as well as CTs in management of traumatic HTX/HPTX.

Methods

Prospective RCT comparing 14Fr PCs to 28–32Fr CTs for management of traumatic HTX/HPTX from 07/2015 to 01/2018. We excluded patients requiring emergency tube placement or who refused. Primary outcome was failure rate defined as retained HTX or recurrent PTX requiring additional intervention. Secondary outcomes included initial output (IO), tube days and insertion perception experience (IPE) score on a scale of 1–5 (1 = tolerable experience, 5 = worst experience). Unpaired Student’s t-test, chi-square and Wilcoxon rank-sum test were utilized with significance set at P < 0.05.

Results

Forty-three patients were enrolled. Baseline characteristics between PC patients (N = 20) and CT patients (N = 23) were similar. Failure rates (10% PCs vs. 17% CTs, P = 0.49) between cohorts were similar. IO (median, 650 milliliters[ml]; interquartile range[IR], 375–1087; for PCs vs. 400 ml; IR, 240–700; for CTs, P = 0.06), and tube duration was similar, but PC patients reported lower IPE scores (median, 1, “I can tolerate it”; IR, 1–2) than CT patients (median, 3, “It was a bad experience”; IR, 3–4, P = 0.001).

Conclusion

In patients with traumatic HTX/HPTX, 14Fr PCs were equally as effective as 28–32Fr CTs with no significant difference in failure rates. PC patients, however, reported a better insertion experience.

www.ClinicalTrials.gov Registration ID: NCT02553434

Intrapleural Impedance Sensor Real-Time Tracking of Pneumothorax in a Porcine Model of Air Leak

In patients with alveolar-to-pleural air leak due to recent surgery or trauma, clinicians tend to manage chest tubes with suction therapy. Nonsuction therapy is associated with shorter chest tube duration but also a higher risk of pneumothorax. We sought to develop an intrapleural electrical impedance sensor for continuous, real-time monitoring of pneumothorax development in a porcine model of air leak as a means of promoting nonsuction therapy. Using thoracoscopy, 2 chest tubes and the pleural impedance sensor were introduced into the pleural space of 3 pigs. Continuous air leak was introduced through 1 chest tube by carbon dioxide insufflation. The second chest tube was placed to suction then transitioned to no suction at increasingly higher air leaks until pneumothorax developed. Simultaneously, real-time impedance measurements were obtained from the pleural sensor. Fluoroscopy spot images were captured to verify the presence or absence of pneumothorax. Statistical Analysis Software was used throughout. With the chest tube on suction, a fully expanded lung was identified by a distinct pleural electrical impedance respiratory waveform. With transition of the chest tube to water seal, loss of contact of the sensor with the lung resulted in an immediate measurement of infinite electrical impedance. Pneumothorax resolution by restoring suction therapy was detected in real time by a return of the normal respiratory impedance waveform. Pleural electrical impedance monitoring detected pneumothorax development and resolution in real time. This simple technology has the potential to improve the safety and quality of chest tube management.

Complications related to tube thoracostomy in Southwest Finland hospital district between 2004 and 2014

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The purpose of this study was to describe the frequency and types of complications after tube thoracostomy among all patients treated with tube thoracostomy for both traumatic and non-traumatic indications.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Retrospective register-based study of patients treated with tube thoracostomy between the years 2004 and 2014 in a university hospital.

RESULTS

In total, 1808 patients who had undergone tube thoracostomy were identified, complete data on tube thoracostomy treatment was available for 1169 patients. A total of 233 (19.9%) patients had 289 complications, 284 (98.3%) were positional resulting in tube malfunction. In 84 (7.2%) patients, malposition of the tube resulted in need for non-urgent operative treatment. There were 103 in-hospital deaths, but none due to tube thoracostomy complications. Empyema as a treatment indication was more frequent in patients with complications (15.9% vs 6.8%, p < 0.001) as was diabetes (21.9% vs 13.2%, p = 0.001). The likelihood of complications was lower with CH16 tubes (odds ratio 0.22, p < 0.001) and higher in diabetics (odds ratio 1.86, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Tube thoracostomy is a common procedure and complications occur in 19.9% of patients. Serious complications caused by the chest tube placement, however, are extremely rare. Complications were most common in patients treated for empyema and diabetics. Small CH16 tubes were associated with a lower incidence of complications.

Complications in tube thoracostomy: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Tube thoracostomy (TT) complications and their reported rates are highly variable (1-40%) and inconsistently classified. Consistent TT complication classification must be applied to compare reported literature to standardize TT placement. We aim to determine the overall TT-related complication rates in patients receiving TT for traumatic indications using uniform definitions.

METHODS

Systematic review and meta-analysis was performed assessing TT-related complications. Comprehensive search of several databases (1975-2015) was conducted. We included studies that reported on bedside TT insertion (≥22 Fr) in trauma patients. Data were abstracted from eligible articles by independent reviewers with discrepancies reconciled by a third. Analyses were based on complication category subtypes: insertional, positional, removal, infection/immunologic/education, and malfunction.

RESULTS

Database search resulted in 478 studies; after applying criteria 29 studies were analyzed representing 4,981 TTs. Injury mechanisms included blunt 60% (49-71), stab 27% (17-34), and gunshot 13% (7.8-10). Overall, median complication rate was 19% (95% confidence interval, 14-24.3). Complication subtypes included insertional (15.3%), positional (53.1%), removal (16.2%), infection/immunologic (14.8%), and malfunction (0.6%). Complication rates did not change significantly over time for insertional, immunologic, or removal p = 0.8. Over time, there was a decrease in infectious TT-related complications as well as an increase in positional TT complications.

CONCLUSION

Generation of evidence-based approaches to improve TT insertion outcomes is difficult because a variety of complication classifications has been used. This meta-analysis of complications after TT insertion in trauma patients suggests that complications have not changed over time remaining stable at 19% over the past three decades.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Systematic review and meta-analysis, level III.

Chest drain and thoracotomy for chest trauma

Traumas are the leading cause of death in the first four decades of life. Nevertheless, thoracic traumas only seldom require invasive procedures. In particular, chest drain placement is required in case of pleural disruption causing haemothorax, pneumothorax or haemopneumothorax. Although large-bore chest drains have been traditionally used in case of haemothorax, recent evidences seem to question this routine, showing good performances of small-bore and pig tail drains. Although it is a common procedures, experience and training is needed to avoid complications which might be even lethal. Surgical exploration after thoracic trauma is rare, accounting for less than 3% of traumas. Penetrating traumas more likely require surgical exploration compared to blunt trauma. Anterolateral thoracotomy is usually performed in this setting, but also clamshell or hemi-clamshell approach can be used. In selected patients, minimally invasive techniques can be performed. Large randomized trials are still needed to assess and standardized the role of new tools and procedures in the thoracic trauma setting.

Using cable ties to connect thoracostomy tubes to drainage devices decreases frequency of unplanned disconnection

OBJECTIVES

Thoracostomy tube (TT) connection to drainage device (DD) may be unintentionally disconnected, potentiating complications. Tape may strengthen this connection despite minimal data informing optimal practice. Our goal was to analyze the utility of cable ties for TT to DD connection.

METHODS

On April 1, 2015, our trauma center supplanted use of tape or nothing with cable ties for securing TT to DD connection. We abstracted trauma registry patients with TTs placed from March 1, 2014 to May 31, 2016 and dichotomized as prior ("BEFORE") and subsequent ("AFTER") to the cable tie practice pattern change. We analyzed demographics, TT-specific details and outcomes. Primary outcome was TT to DD disconnection. Secondary outcomes included TT dislodgement from the chest, complications, length of stay (LOS), mortality, number of TTs placed and TT days.

RESULTS

121 (83.4% of abstracted) patients were analyzed. Demographics, indications for TT and operative rate were similar for BEFORE and AFTER cohorts. ISS was lower BEFORE (14.12 ± 2.35 vs 18.21 ± 2.71, p = 0.022); however, RTS and AIS for chest were similar (p = 0.155 and 0.409, respectively). TT to DD disconnections per TT days were significantly higher in the BEFORE cohort [6 (2.8%) vs. 1 (0.19%), p = 0.003], and dislodgements were statistically similar [0 vs 3 (0.57%), p = 0.36]. LOS, initial TTs placed and days per TT were similar, and median and mode of days per TT were the same.

CONCLUSIONS

Cable ties secure connections between TT and DDs with higher fidelity compared to tape or nothing but may increase rates of TT dislodgement from the chest.

External Validation of a Tube Thoracostomy Complication Classification System

BACKGROUND

Tube thoracostomy (TT) is a commonly performed procedure which is associated with significant complication rates. Currently, there is no validated taxonomy to classify and compare TT complications across different populations. This study aims to validate such TT complication taxonomy in a cohort of South African trauma patients.

METHODS

Post hoc analysis of a prospectively collected trauma database from Pietermaritzburg Metropolitan Trauma Service (PMTS) in South Africa was performed for the period January 2010 to December 2013. Baseline demographics, mechanism of injury and complications were collected and categorized according to published classification protocols. All patients requiring bedside TT were included in the study. Patients who necessitated operatively placed or image-guided TT insertion were excluded. Summary and univariate analyses were performed.

RESULTS

A total of 1010 patients underwent TT. The mean age was (±SD) of 26 ± 8 years. Unilateral TTs were inserted in n = 966 (96%) and bilateral in n = 44 (4%). Complications developed in 162 (16%) patients. Penetrating injury was associated with lower complication rate (11%) than blunt injury (26%), p = 0.0001. Higher complication rate was seen in TT placed by interns (17%) compared to TT placed by residents (7%), p = 0.0001. Complications were classified as: insertional (38%), positional (44%), removal (9%), infective/immunologic (9%), and instructional, educational or equipment related (0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite being developed in the USA, this classification system is robust and was able to comprehensively assign and categorize all the complications of TT in this South African trauma cohort. A universal standardized definition and classification system permits equitable comparisons of complication rates. The use of this classification taxonomy may help develop strategies to improve TT placement techniques and reduce the complications associated with the procedure.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V.

STUDY TYPE

Single Institution Retrospective review.

A Prospective Study of 7-Year Experience Using Percutaneous 14-French Pigtail Catheters for Traumatic Hemothorax/Hemopneumothorax at a Level-1 Trauma Center: Size Still Does Not Matter

BACKGROUND

The effectiveness of 14-French (14F) pigtail catheters (PCs) compared to 32-40F chest tubes (CTs) in patients with traumatic hemothorax (HTX) and hemopneumothorax (HPTX) is becoming more well known but still lacking. The aim of our study was to analyze our cumulative experience and outcomes with PCs in patients with traumatic HTX/HPTX. We hypothesized that PCs would be as effective as CTs.

METHODS

Using our PC database, we analyzed all trauma patients who required chest drainage for HTX/HPTX from 2008 to 2014. Primary outcomes of interest, comparing PCs to CTs, included initial drainage output in milliliters (mL), tube insertion-related complications, and failure rate. For our statistical analysis, we used the unpaired Student's t test, Chi-square test, and Wilcoxon rank-sum test. We defined statistical significance as P < 0.05.

RESULTS

During the 7-year period, 496 trauma patients required chest drainage for traumatic HTX/HPTX: 307 by CTs and 189 by PCs. PC patients were older (52 ± 21 vs. 42 ± 19, P < 0.001), demonstrated a significantly higher occurrence of blunt trauma (86 vs. 55%, P ≤ 0.001), and had tubes placed in a non-emergent fashion (Day 1 [interquartile range (IQR) 1-3 days] for PC placement vs. Day 0 [IQR 0-1 days] for CT placement, P < 0.001). All primary outcomes of interest were similar, except that the initial drainage output for PCs was higher (425 mL [IQR 200-800 mL] vs. 300 mL [IQR 150-500], P < 0.001). Findings for subgroup analysis among emergent and non-emergent PC placement were also similar to CT placement.

CONCLUSION

PCs had similar outcomes to CTs in terms of failure rate and tube insertion-related complications, and the initial drainage output from PCs was not inferior to that of CTs. The usage of PCs was, however, selective. A future multi-center study is needed to provide additional support and information for PC usage in traumatic HTX/HPTX.

Bradycardia after Tube Thoracostomy for Spontaneous Pneumothorax

We present the case of an elderly patient who became bradycardic after chest tube insertion for spontaneous pneumothorax. Arrhythmia is a rare complication of tube thoracostomy. Unlike other reported cases of chest tube induced arrhythmias, the bradycardia in our patient responded to resuscitative measures without removal or repositioning of the tube. Our patient, who had COPD, presented with shortness of breath due to spontaneous pneumothorax. Moments after tube insertion, patient developed severe bradycardia that responded to Atropine. In patients requiring chest tube insertion, it is important to be prepared to provide cardiopulmonary resuscitative therapy in case the patient develops a life-threatening arrhythmia.

Tube Thoracostomy Complications Increase Cost

BACKGROUND

Tube thoracostomy (TT) can be an effective therapy for thoracic pathologies. Ineffective placement of TT is common and associated with significant complications. Complications require additional interventions to repair damaged tissues or replace dysfunctional TT. We hypothesize that complicated TT insertion increases cost to the hospital system.

METHODS

Adult trauma patients requiring TT at a level 1 trauma center (2012-2013) were reviewed. Intraoperative or image-guided TT placements were excluded. Baseline demographics and TT insertion cost (normalized and assigned by hospital billing records) were recorded. Costs included initial TT equipment, radiographs, and subsequent operative or radiologic intervention to correct TT complications. Complications were categorized using previously validated method. Secondary outcomes included: number of TT inserted, number of chest radiographs performed, and TT dwell time utilizing a standardized TT discontinuation protocol.

RESULTS

A total of 154 patients with 246 TT were included. Ninety TT (37%) had complication. Complication categories are postremoval (n = 15, 16.7%), insertional (n = 13, 14.4%), positional (n = 62, 68.9%). Overall median complicated TT cost was 9 times greater than uncomplicated TT insertion, p = 0.001. Insertional complications median cost 21 times greater than an uncomplicated, due to operative and radiologic interventions (p = 0.0001). Positional and postremoval complication rates increased median cost by 3 times compared to uncomplicated TT (p = 0.03). Operative or radiologic interventions (n = 10) were performed for organ injury or uncontrolled hemo-/pneumothorax. Increased dwell time median [IQR] was associated with complicated TT compared to uncomplicated 3 [1-5] versus 2 [1-3], p = 0.01.

CONCLUSION

TT is a common procedure. TT complications are often considered benign. However, patients with a complicated TT insertion, especially related to insertional subtypes, have markedly increased hospitalization costs due to need for operative or radiologic repair.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V-retrospective study.

STUDY TYPE

This is a retrospective single-institution study.

Tube thoracostomy: Increased angle of insertion is associated with complications

INTRODUCTION

Tube thoracostomy (TT), considered a routine procedure, has significant complications. Current recommendations for placement rely on surface anatomy. There is no information to guide operators regarding angle of insertion relative to chest wall. We aim to determine if angle of insertion is associated with complications of TT.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of adult trauma patients who necessitated TT at a Level I trauma center over a 2-year period (January 2012 to December 2013). Tube thoracostomies performed intraoperatively or using radiological guidance were excluded. Thoracic anteroposterior or posteroanterior radiographs were reviewed to determine the angle of insertion of TT relative to the thoracic wall. A previously validated classification method was used to categorize complications. Descriptive and univariate statistics were used to compare angle of insertion and complicated versus uncomplicated TT.

RESULTS

Review identified 154 patients who underwent a total of 246 TT placed for emergent trauma. All patients had a postprocedural chest x-ray. We identified 90 complications (37%) over the study period. One hundred forty-four of the TTs reviewed had an angle of insertion less than 45 degrees of which there were 27 complications (19%). One hundred two of the TTs had an angle greater than 45 degrees and 63 complications (62%); p < 0.0001.

CONCLUSIONS

Tube thoracostomy insertion is inherently dangerous. Placement of TT using a higher angle of insertion greater than 45 degrees is associated with increased complications. Further prospective studies quantifying TT angle of insertion on outcomes are needed.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic study, level IV.

Visually guided tube thoracostomy insertion comparison to standard of care in a large animal model

INTRODUCTION

Tube thoracostomy (TT) is a lifesaving procedure for a variety of thoracic pathologies. The most commonly utilized method for placement involves open dissection and blind insertion. Image guided placement is commonly utilized but is limited by an inability to see distal placement location. Unfortunately, TT is not without complications. We aim to demonstrate the feasibility of a disposable device to allow for visually directed TT placement compared to the standard of care in a large animal model.

METHODS

Three swine were sequentially orotracheally intubated and anesthetized. TT was conducted utilizing a novel visualization device, tube thoracostomy visual trocar (TTVT) and standard of care (open technique). Position of the TT in the chest cavity were recorded using direct thoracoscopic inspection and radiographic imaging with the operator blinded to results. Complications were evaluated using a validated complication grading system. Standard descriptive statistical analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Thirty TT were placed, 15 using TTVT technique, 15 using standard of care open technique. All of the TT placed using TTVT were without complication and in optimal position. Conversely, 27% of TT placed using standard of care open technique resulted in complications. Necropsy revealed no injury to intrathoracic organs.

CONCLUSION

Visual directed TT placement using TTVT is feasible and non-inferior to the standard of care in a large animal model. This improvement in instrumentation has the potential to greatly improve the safety of TT. Further study in humans is required.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level II.