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Qian J, Jiang M, Ding Z, Gu D, Bai H, Cai M, Yao D. Role of Long Non-coding RNA in Nerve Regeneration. Int J Neurosci 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37937941 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2023.2280446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Nerve injury can be caused by a variety of factors. It often takes a long time to repair a nerve injury and severe nerve injury is even difficult to heal. Therefore, increasing attention has focused on nerve injury and repair. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is a newly discovered non-coding RNA with a wide range of biological activities. Numerous studies have shown that a variety of lncRNAs undergo changes in expression after nerve injury, indicating that lncRNAs may be involved in various biological processes of nerve repair and regeneration. Herein, we summarize the biological roles of lncRNAs in neurons, glial cells and other cells during nerve injury and regeneration, which will help lncRNAs to be better applied in nerve injury and regeneration in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxi Qian
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Maorong Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Zihan Ding
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Dandan Gu
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Huiyuan Bai
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Min Cai
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
| | - Dengbing Yao
- School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, P.R. China
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Recent Advances and Future Potential of Long Non-Coding RNAs in Insects. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032605. [PMID: 36768922 PMCID: PMC9917219 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have witnessed a steep rise in interest amongst the scientific community. Because of their functional significance in several biological processes, i.e., alternative splicing, epigenetics, cell cycle, dosage compensation, and gene expression regulation, lncRNAs have transformed our understanding of RNA's regulatory potential. However, most knowledge concerning lncRNAs comes from mammals, and our understanding of the potential role of lncRNAs amongst insects remains unclear. Technological advances such as RNA-seq have enabled entomologists to profile several hundred lncRNAs in insect species, although few are functionally studied. This article will review experimentally validated lncRNAs from different insects and the lncRNAs identified via bioinformatic tools. Lastly, we will discuss the existing research challenges and the future of lncRNAs in insects.
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Zafar J, Huang J, Xu X, Jin F. Analysis of Long Non-Coding RNA-Mediated Regulatory Networks of Plutella xylostella in Response to Metarhizium anisopliae Infection. INSECTS 2022; 13:916. [PMID: 36292864 PMCID: PMC9604237 DOI: 10.3390/insects13100916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent a diverse class of RNAs that are structurally similar to messenger RNAs (mRNAs) but do not encode proteins. Growing evidence suggests that in response to biotic and abiotic stresses, the lncRNAs play crucial regulatory roles in plants and animals. However, the potential role of lncRNAs during fungal infection has yet to be characterized in Plutella xylostella, a devastating pest of cruciferous crops. In the current study, we performed a strand-specific RNA sequencing of Metarhizium anisopliae-infected (Px36hT, Px72hT) and uninfected (Px36hCK, Px72hCK) P. xylostella fat body tissues. Comprehensive bioinformatic analysis revealed a total of 5665 and 4941 lncRNAs at 36 and 72-h post-infection (hpi), including 563 (Px36hT), 532 (Px72hT) known and 5102 (Px36hT), 4409 (Px72hT) novel lncRNA transcripts. These lncRNAs shared structural similarities with their counterparts in other species, including shorter exon and intron length, fewer exon numbers, and a lower expression profile than mRNAs. LncRNAs regulate the expression of neighboring protein-coding genes by acting in a cis and trans manner. Functional annotation and pathway analysis of cis-acting lncRNAs revealed their role in several immune-related genes, including Toll, serpin, transferrin, βGRP etc. Furthermore, we identified multiple lncRNAs acting as microRNA (miRNA) precursors. These miRNAs can potentially regulate the expression of mRNAs involved in immunity and development, suggesting a crucial lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA complex. Our findings will provide a genetic resource for future functional studies of lncRNAs involved in P. xylostella immune responses to M. anisopliae infection and shed light on understanding insect host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xiaoxia Xu
- Correspondence: (X.X.); (F.J.); Tel.: +86-135-6047-8369 (F.J.)
| | - Fengliang Jin
- Correspondence: (X.X.); (F.J.); Tel.: +86-135-6047-8369 (F.J.)
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Chen J, Huang Y, Qi G. LncRNA-IRAR-mediated regulation of insulin receptor transcripts in Drosophila melanogaster during nutritional stress. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 31:261-272. [PMID: 34923706 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The insulin signalling pathway plays a crucial role in regulating the metabolism of sugars, fats and proteins in cells, thereby affecting the growth, metabolism, reproduction and ageing of organisms. However, little is known about the functions of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the regulation of insulin receptors under stress conditions in insects. In this study, we showed that insulin receptor-associated lncRNA (IRAR) regulates insulin receptor transcripts in response to nutritional stress in Drosophila melanogaster. Genome editing by CRISPR-Cas9 showed reduced sensitivity of IRAR mutants to environmental nutritional changes. In contrast, the sensitivity of mutants overexpressing tubulin-gal4 > IRAR increased under low nutrition. The pupation and eclosion timings in IRAR mutants were significantly delayed with an increase in insulin concentration compared with that in the w1118 group. In addition, the expression pattern of IRAR was almost consistent with that of the four transcripts of the insulin receptor from the embryonic period to the adult period. RNA immunoprecipitation assay showed the direct regulation of insulin receptor transcripts by IRAR to the through FOXO binding under nutritional stress. To our knowledge, this is the first study that describes a model of lncRNA-mediated development regulation through insulin receptor transcripts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Plant Protection Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuantai Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Guojun Qi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Plant Protection Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Choudhary C, Sharma S, Meghwanshi KK, Patel S, Mehta P, Shukla N, Do DN, Rajpurohit S, Suravajhala P, Shukla JN. Long Non-Coding RNAs in Insects. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1118. [PMID: 33919662 PMCID: PMC8069800 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Only a small subset of all the transcribed RNAs are used as a template for protein translation, whereas RNA molecules that are not translated play a very important role as regulatory non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Besides traditionally known RNAs (ribosomal and transfer RNAs), ncRNAs also include small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The lncRNAs, which were initially thought to be junk, have gained a great deal attention because of their regulatory roles in diverse biological processes in animals and plants. Insects are the most abundant and diverse group of animals on this planet. Recent studies have demonstrated the role of lncRNAs in almost all aspects of insect development, reproduction, and genetic plasticity. In this review, we describe the function and molecular mechanisms of the mode of action of different insect lncRNAs discovered up to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Choudhary
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindari, Ajmer 305801, India; (C.C.); (K.K.M.)
| | - Shivasmi Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Amity University Jaipur, Jaipur 303002, India; (S.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Keshav Kumar Meghwanshi
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindari, Ajmer 305801, India; (C.C.); (K.K.M.)
| | - Smit Patel
- Department of Biotechnology, Amity University Jaipur, Jaipur 303002, India; (S.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Prachi Mehta
- Division of Biological & Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Gujarat 380009, India; (P.M.); (S.R.)
| | - Nidhi Shukla
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Birla Institute of Scientific Research, Jaipur 302001, India;
| | - Duy Ngoc Do
- Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Danang 550000, Vietnam;
| | - Subhash Rajpurohit
- Division of Biological & Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Gujarat 380009, India; (P.M.); (S.R.)
| | - Prashanth Suravajhala
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Birla Institute of Scientific Research, Jaipur 302001, India;
- Bioclues.org, Vivekananda Nagar, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Telangana 500072, India
| | - Jayendra Nath Shukla
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindari, Ajmer 305801, India; (C.C.); (K.K.M.)
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Chen H, Shan G. The physiological function of long-noncoding RNAs. Noncoding RNA Res 2020; 5:178-184. [PMID: 32959025 PMCID: PMC7494506 DOI: 10.1016/j.ncrna.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiological processes of cells and organisms are regulated by various biological macromolecules, including long-noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which cannot be translated into protein and are different from small-noncoding RNAs on their length. In animals, lncRNAs are involved in development, metabolism, reproduction, aging and other life events by cis or trans effects. For many functional lncRNAs, there is growing evidence that they play different roles on cellular level and organismal level. On the other hand, many annotated lncRNAs are not essential and could be transcription noises. In this minireview, we investigate the physiological function of lncRNAs in cells and focus on their functions and functional mechanisms on the organismal level. The studies on lncRNAs using different classic animal models such as worms and flies are summarized and discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui Province, 230027, China
| | - Ge Shan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui Province, 230027, China
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McCorkindale AL, Wahle P, Werner S, Jungreis I, Menzel P, Shukla CJ, Abreu RLP, Irizarry RA, Meyer IM, Kellis M, Zinzen RP. A gene expression atlas of embryonic neurogenesis in Drosophila reveals complex spatiotemporal regulation of lncRNAs. Development 2019; 146:dev.175265. [PMID: 30923056 PMCID: PMC6451322 DOI: 10.1242/dev.175265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell type specification during early nervous system development in Drosophila melanogaster requires precise regulation of gene expression in time and space. Resolving the programs driving neurogenesis has been a major challenge owing to the complexity and rapidity with which distinct cell populations arise. To resolve the cell type-specific gene expression dynamics in early nervous system development, we have sequenced the transcriptomes of purified neurogenic cell types across consecutive time points covering crucial events in neurogenesis. The resulting gene expression atlas comprises a detailed resource of global transcriptome dynamics that permits systematic analysis of how cells in the nervous system acquire distinct fates. We resolve known gene expression dynamics and uncover novel expression signatures for hundreds of genes among diverse neurogenic cell types, most of which remain unstudied. We also identified a set of conserved long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that are regulated in a tissue-specific manner and exhibit spatiotemporal expression during neurogenesis with exquisite specificity. lncRNA expression is highly dynamic and demarcates specific subpopulations within neurogenic cell types. Our spatiotemporal transcriptome atlas provides a comprehensive resource for investigating the function of coding genes and noncoding RNAs during crucial stages of early neurogenesis. Summary: DIV-MARIS, an adapted technique for examining stage- and cell type-specific gene expression, reveals a complex network of mRNAs and lncRNAs expressed in specific cell types during early Drosophila embryonic nervous system development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L McCorkindale
- Laboratory for Systems Biology of Neural Tissue Differentiation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany .,Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Philipp Wahle
- Laboratory for Systems Biology of Neural Tissue Differentiation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Werner
- Laboratory for Systems Biology of Neural Tissue Differentiation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Irwin Jungreis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Peter Menzel
- Laboratory for Bioinformatics of RNA Structure and Transcriptome Regulation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Chinmay J Shukla
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Rúben Lopes Pereira Abreu
- Laboratory for Systems Biology of Neural Tissue Differentiation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Irmtraud M Meyer
- Laboratory for Bioinformatics of RNA Structure and Transcriptome Regulation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany.,Freie Universität, Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Thielallee 63, Berlin 14195, Germany
| | - Manolis Kellis
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.,Laboratory for Bioinformatics of RNA Structure and Transcriptome Regulation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert P Zinzen
- Laboratory for Systems Biology of Neural Tissue Differentiation, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Association, Robert-Roessle-Strasse 12, 13125 Berlin, Germany
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Lakhotia SC. From Heterochromatin to Long Noncoding RNAs in Drosophila: Expanding the Arena of Gene Function and Regulation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1008:75-118. [PMID: 28815537 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-5203-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a remarkable interest in exploring the significance of pervasive noncoding transcripts in diverse eukaryotes. Classical cytogenetic studies using the Drosophila model system unraveled the perplexing attributes and "functions" of the "gene"-poor heterochromatin. Recent molecular studies in the fly model are likewise revealing the very diverse and significant roles played by long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in development, gene regulation, chromatin organization, cell and nuclear architecture, etc. There has been a rapid increase in the number of identified lncRNAs, although a much larger number still remains unknown. The diversity of modes of actions and functions of the limited number of Drosophila lncRNAs, which have been examined, already reflects the profound roles of such RNAs in generating and sustaining the biological complexities of eukaryotes. Several of the known Drosophila lncRNAs originate as independent sense or antisense transcripts from promoter or intergenic, intronic, or 5'/3'-UTR regions, while many of them are independent genes that produce only lncRNAs or coding as well as noncoding RNAs. The different lncRNAs affect chromatin organization (local or large-scale pan-chromosomal), transcription, RNA processing/stability, or translation either directly through interaction with their target DNA sequences or indirectly by acting as intermediary molecules for specific regulatory proteins or may act as decoys/sinks, or storage sites for specific proteins or groups of proteins, or may provide a structural framework for the assembly of substructures in nucleus/cytoplasm. It is interesting that many of the "functions" alluded to heterochromatin in earlier cytogenetic studies appear to find correlates with the known subtle as well as far-reaching actions of the different small and long noncoding RNAs. Further studies exploiting the very rich and powerful genetic and molecular resources available for the Drosophila model are expected to unravel the mystery underlying the long reach of ncRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash C Lakhotia
- Cytogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
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Lo Piccolo L. Drosophila as a Model to Gain Insight into the Role of lncRNAs in Neurological Disorders. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1076:119-146. [PMID: 29951818 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0529-0_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
It is now clear that the majority of transcription in humans results in the production of long non-protein-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) with a variable length spanning from 200 bp up to several kilobases. To date, we have a limited understanding of the lncRNA function, but a huge number of evidences have suggested that lncRNAs represent an outstanding asset for cells. In particular, temporal and spatial expression of lncRNAs appears to be important for proper neurological functioning. Stunningly, abnormal lncRNA function has been found as being critical for the onset of neurological disorders. This chapter focus on the lncRNAs with a role in diseases affecting the central nervous system with particular regard for the lncRNAs causing those neurodegenerative diseases that exhibit dementia and/or motor dysfunctions. A specific section will be dedicated to the human neuronal lncRNAs that have been modelled in Drosophila. Finally, even if only few examples have been reported so far, an overview of the Drosophila lncRNAs with neurological functions will be also included in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Lo Piccolo
- Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
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Nyberg KG, Machado CA. Comparative Expression Dynamics of Intergenic Long Noncoding RNAs in the Genus Drosophila. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:1839-58. [PMID: 27189981 PMCID: PMC4943187 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been annotated in eukaryotic genomes, but comparative transcriptomic approaches are necessary to understand their biological impact and evolution. To facilitate such comparative studies in Drosophila, we identified and characterized lncRNAs in a second Drosophilid—the evolutionary model Drosophila pseudoobscura. Using RNA-Seq and computational filtering of protein-coding potential, we identified 1,589 intergenic lncRNA loci in D. pseudoobscura. We surveyed multiple sex-specific developmental stages and found, like in Drosophila melanogaster, increasingly prolific lncRNA expression through male development and an overrepresentation of lncRNAs in the testes. Other trends seen in D. melanogaster, like reduced pupal expression, were not observed. Nonrandom distributions of female-biased and non-testis-specific male-biased lncRNAs between the X chromosome and autosomes are consistent with selection-based models of gene trafficking to optimize genomic location of sex-biased genes. The numerous testis-specific lncRNAs, however, are randomly distributed between the X and autosomes, and we cannot reject the hypothesis that many of these are likely to be spurious transcripts. Finally, using annotated lncRNAs in both species, we identified 134 putative lncRNA homologs between D. pseudoobscura and D. melanogaster and find that many have conserved developmental expression dynamics, making them ideal candidates for future functional analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin G Nyberg
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park
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