1
|
Huang L, Lin B, Hao P, Yi K, Li X, Hua S. Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals That Anthocyanin Degradation and Phytohormone Changes Regulate Red Color Fading in Rapeseed ( Brassica napus L.) Petals. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2577. [PMID: 38473825 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Flower color is an important trait for the ornamental value of colored rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), as the plant is becoming more popular. However, the color fading of red petals of rapeseed is a problem for its utilization. Unfortunately, the mechanism for the process of color fading in rapeseed is unknown. In the current study, a red flower line, Zhehuhong, was used as plant material to analyze the alterations in its morphological and physiological characteristics, including pigment and phytohormone content, 2 d before flowering (T1), at flowering (T2), and 2 d after flowering (T3). Further, metabolomics and transcriptomics analyses were also performed to reveal the molecular regulation of petal fading. The results show that epidermal cells changed from spherical and tightly arranged to totally collapsed from T1 to T3, according to both paraffin section and scanning electron microscope observation. The pH value and all pigment content except flavonoids decreased significantly during petal fading. The anthocyanin content was reduced by 60.3% at T3 compared to T1. The content of three phytohormones, 1-aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid, melatonin, and salicylic acid, increased significantly by 2.2, 1.1, and 30.3 times, respectively, from T1 to T3. However, auxin, abscisic acid, and jasmonic acid content decreased from T1 to T3. The result of metabolomics analysis shows that the content of six detected anthocyanin components (cyanidin, peonidin, pelargonidin, delphinidin, petunidin, and malvidin) and their derivatives mainly exhibited a decreasing trend, which was in accordance with the trend of decreasing anthocyanin. Transcriptomics analysis showed downregulation of genes involved in flavonol, flavonoid, and anthocyanin biosynthesis. Furthermore, genes regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis were preferentially expressed at early stages, indicating that the degradation of anthocyanin is the main issue during color fading. The corresponding gene-encoding phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling, JASMONATE-ZIM-DOMAIN PROTEIN, was deactivated to repress anthocyanin biosynthesis, resulting in fading petal color. The results clearly suggest that anthocyanin degradation and phytohormone regulation play essential roles in petal color fading in rapeseed, which is a useful insight for the breeding of colored rapeseed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lan Huang
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Baogang Lin
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Pengfei Hao
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Kaige Yi
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Xi Li
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Shuijin Hua
- Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilization, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Martínez-Harms J, Guerrero PC, Martínez-Harms MJ, Poblete N, González K, Stavenga DG, Vorobyev M. Mechanisms of flower coloring and eco-evolutionary implications of massive blooming events in the Atacama Desert. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.957318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on earth, holds a rich biodiversity that becomes most appreciable in years when unusual rainfall accumulation triggers a phenomenon of explosive development of ephemeral herbaceous and woody desert species known as “desierto florido” or “blooming desert.” Despite the scientific importance of this unique phenomenon only few studies have addressed the mechanisms of flower phenotypic divergence under the fluctuating environment provided by this recurrent event. We investigated the mechanisms of floral color diversity in Cistanthe longiscapa (Montiaceae), a dominant species across the ephemeral blooming landscape of Atacama Desert. Our analyses show that the variation in colors of C. longiscapa flowers result from petals containing betalain pigments with different absorption spectra. The different pigment composition of petals causes flower color differences in the visible and ultraviolet (UV) range of the spectrum. Through color vision models we show that C. longiscapa flowers are highly polymorphic in their color appearance for insect pollinators. Our results highlight the variable nature in flower color of C. longiscapa varieties blooming simultaneously in a geographical restricted area. Given the importance of color in attracting floral visitors, the observed color variability could contribute to increased cross pollination in extreme desert conditions, while accounting for complex and fluctuating histories of plant-pollinator interactions.
Collapse
|
3
|
Wong DCJ, Perkins J, Peakall R. Conserved pigment pathways underpin the dark insectiform floral structures of sexually deceptive Chiloglottis (Orchidaceae). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:976283. [PMID: 36275580 PMCID: PMC9581149 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.976283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Sexually deceptive plants achieve pollination by enticing specific male insects as pollinators using a combination of olfactory, visual, and morphological mimicry. The sexually deceptive orchid genus Chiloglottis is comprised of some 30 species with predominantly dull green-red flowers except for the dark insectiform calli/callus structure from the labellum lamina. This unique structure mimics the female of the pollinator and potentially enhances the visibility of the mimic. However, the chemical and genetic basis for the color of these structures remains poorly understood across the genus. The goal of this study was to investigate the flower color biochemistry and patterns of gene expression across the anthocyanin and flavonol glycoside biosynthetic pathway within the calli structures across the three distinct clades of Chiloglottis (Formicifera, Reflexa, and Valida) using chemical and transcriptome analysis. Our phylogenomic analysis confirmed the close sister relationship between the Reflexa/Formicifera clades and reaffirms the basal position of the Valida clade. Additionally, the biochemical basis of the dark calli/callus structures is conserved across the genus. Nonetheless, the proportion of methoxylated anthocyanin and flavonol glycoside derivatives and the mean gene expression levels appear to differentiate the Reflexa and Formicifera clades from the Valida clade. In future studies, it will be of interest to tease apart the role of phylogeny, environment, pollinators, and other factors as potential drivers of the observed biochemistry and gene expression differences. It will also be important to characterize the function of candidate genes such as DFR, LDOX, and FLS in this fascinating case of flower color mimicry.
Collapse
|
4
|
van der Kooi CJ, Kelber A. Achromatic Cues Are Important for Flower Visibility to Hawkmoths and Other Insects. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.819436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on animal colour vision typically focus on the chromatic aspect of colour, which is related to the spectral distribution, and disregard the achromatic aspect, which is related to the intensity (“brightness”) of a stimulus. Although the chromatic component of vision is often most reliable for object recognition because it is fairly context independent, the achromatic component may provide a reliable signal under specific conditions, for example at night when light intensity is low. Here we make a case for the importance of achromatic cues in plant-pollinator signalling, based on experimental data on naïve Deilephila elpenor and Macroglossum stellatarum hawkmoths, optical modelling and synthesising published experiments on bees, flies, butterflies and moths. Our experiments show that in ecologically relevant light levels hawkmoths express a strong preference for brighter stimuli. Published experiments suggest that for flower-visiting bees, butterflies, moths and flies, achromatic cues may be more important for object detection than often considered. Our optical modelling enabled disentangling the contribution of pigments and scattering structures to the flower’s achromatic contrast, and illustrates how flower anatomy and background are important mediating factors. We discuss our findings in the context of the often-assumed dichotomy between detection and discrimination, chromatic versus achromatic vision, and the evolution of floral visual signals.
Collapse
|
5
|
Koethe S, Reinartz L, Heard TA, Garcia JE, Dyer AG, Lunau K. Comparative psychophysics of Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) and stingless bee (Tetragonula carbonaria) colour purity and intensity perception. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2022; 208:641-652. [PMID: 36269403 PMCID: PMC9734212 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-022-01581-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bees play a vital role as pollinators worldwide and have influenced how flower colour signals have evolved. The Western honey bee, Apis mellifera (Apini), and the Buff-tailed bumble bee, Bombus terrestris (Bombini) are well-studied model species with regard to their sensory physiology and pollination capacity, although currently far less is known about stingless bees (Meliponini) that are common in pantropical regions. We conducted comparative experiments with two highly eusocial bee species, the Western honey bee, A. mellifera, and the Australian stingless bee, Tetragonula carbonaria, to understand their colour preferences considering fine-scaled stimuli specifically designed for testing bee colour vision. We employed stimuli made of pigment powders to allow manipulation of single colour parameters including spectral purity (saturation) or colour intensity (brightness) of a blue colour (hue) for which both species have previously shown innate preferences. Both A. mellifera and T. carbonaria demonstrated a significant preference for spectrally purer colour stimuli, although this preference is more pronounced in honey bees than in stingless bees. When all other colour cues were tightly controlled, honey bees receiving absolute conditioning demonstrated a capacity to learn a high-intensity stimulus significant from chance expectation demonstrating some capacity of plasticity for this dimension of colour perception. However, honey bees failed to learn low-intensity stimuli, and T. carbonaria was insensitive to stimulus intensity as a cue. These comparative findings suggest that there may be some common roots underpinning colour perception in bee pollinators and how they interact with flowers, although species-specific differences do exist.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Koethe
- Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lara Reinartz
- Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | | | - Jair E. Garcia
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Building 5.2.36, City Campus, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001 Australia
| | - Adrian G. Dyer
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Building 5.2.36, City Campus, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001 Australia ,Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, 3800 Australia ,Institute of Developmental Biology and Neurobiology, Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Mainz, Germany
| | - Klaus Lunau
- Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
van der Kooi CJ. How Much Pigment Should Flowers Have? Flowers With Moderate Pigmentation Have Highest Color Contrast. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.731626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral pigments are a core component of flower colors, but how much pigment a flower should have to yield a strong visual signal to pollinators is unknown. Using an optical model and taking white, blue, yellow and red flowers as case studies, I investigate how the amount of pigment determines a flower’s color contrast. Modeled reflectance spectra are interpreted using established insect color vision models. Contrast as a function of the amount of pigment shows a pattern of diminishing return. Low pigment amounts yield pale colors, intermediate amounts yield high contrast, and extreme amounts of pigment do not further increase, and sometimes even decrease, a flower’s color contrast. An intermediate amount of floral pigment thus yields the highest visibility, a finding that is corroborated by previous behavioral experiments on bees. The implications for studies on plant-pollinator signaling, intraspecific flower color variation and the costs of flower color are discussed.
Collapse
|
7
|
Roguz K, Hill L, Koethe S, Lunau K, Roguz A, Zych M. Visibility and attractiveness of Fritillaria (Liliaceae) flowers to potential pollinators. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11006. [PMID: 34040041 PMCID: PMC8155214 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90140-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Visual floral characters play an important role in shaping plant-pollinator interactions. The genus Fritillaria L. (Liliaceae), comprising approximately 140 species, is described as displaying a remarkable variety of flower colours and sizes. Despite this variation in visual floral traits of fritillaries, little is known about the potential role of these features in shaping plant-pollinator interactions. Here, we seek to clarify the role of visual attraction in species offering a robust food reward for pollinators early in the spring, which is the case for Fritillaria. We also searched for potential tendencies in the evolution of floral traits crucial for plant-pollinator communication. The generality of species with green and purple flowers may indicate an influence of environmental factors other than pollinators. The flowers of the studied species seem to be visible but not very visually attractive to potential pollinators. The food rewards are hidden within the nodding perianth, and both traits are conserved among fritillaries. Additionally, visual floral traits are not good predictors of nectar properties. When in the flowers, pollinators are navigated by nectar guides in the form of contrasting nectary area colouration. Flower colour does not serve as a phenotypic filter against illegitimate pollinators-red and orange bird-pollinated fritillaries are visible to bees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Roguz
- Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Sebastian Koethe
- Institute of Sensory Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Klaus Lunau
- Institute of Sensory Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Agata Roguz
- National Information Processing Institute, Al. Niepodległości 188 B, 00-608, Warszawa, Poland
| | - Marcin Zych
- Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Giovannini A, Laura M, Nesi B, Savona M, Cardi T. Genes and genome editing tools for breeding desirable phenotypes in ornamentals. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2021; 40:461-478. [PMID: 33388891 PMCID: PMC7778708 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-020-02632-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We review the main genes underlying commercial traits in cut flower species and critically discuss the possibility to apply genome editing approaches to produce novel variation and phenotypes. Promoting flowering and flower longevity as well as creating novelty in flower structure, colour range and fragrances are major objectives of ornamental plant breeding. The novel genome editing techniques add new possibilities to study gene function and breed new varieties. The implementation of such techniques, however, relies on detailed information about structure and function of genomes and genes. Moreover, improved protocols for efficient delivery of editing reagents are required. Recent results of the application of genome editing techniques to elite ornamental crops are discussed in this review. Enabling technologies and genomic resources are reviewed in relation to the implementation of such approaches. Availability of the main gene sequences, underlying commercial traits and in vitro transformation protocols are provided for the world's best-selling cut flowers, namely rose, lily, chrysanthemum, lisianthus, tulip, gerbera, freesia, alstroemeria, carnation and hydrangea. Results obtained so far are described and their implications for the improvement of flowering, flower architecture, colour, scent and shelf-life are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. Giovannini
- CREA Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (CREA OF), Corso degli Inglesi 508, 18038 Sanremo, Italy
| | - M. Laura
- CREA Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (CREA OF), Corso degli Inglesi 508, 18038 Sanremo, Italy
| | - B. Nesi
- CREA Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (CREA OF), Via dei Fiori 8, 51017 Pescia, Italy
| | - M. Savona
- CREA Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (CREA OF), Corso degli Inglesi 508, 18038 Sanremo, Italy
| | - T. Cardi
- CREA Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (CREA OF), Via Cavalleggeri 25, 84098 Pontecagnano Faiano, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sapir Y, Gallagher MK, Senden E. What Maintains Flower Colour Variation within Populations? Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:507-519. [PMID: 33663870 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2021.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Natural selection acts on phenotypic trait variation. Understanding the mechanisms that create and maintain trait variation is fundamental to understanding the breadth of diversity seen on Earth. Flower colour is among the most conspicuous and highly diverse traits in nature. Most flowering plant populations have uniform floral colours, but a minority exhibit within-population colour variation, either discrete (polymorphic) or continuous. Colour variation is commonly maintained by balancing selection through multiple pollinators, opposing selection regimes, or fluctuating selection. Variation can also be maintained by heterozygote advantage or frequency-dependent selection. Neutral processes, or a lack of selection, may maintain variation, although this remains largely untested. We suggest several prospective research directions that may provide insight into the evolutionary drivers of trait variation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuval Sapir
- The Botanical Garden, School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
| | - M Kate Gallagher
- The Botanical Garden, School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Esther Senden
- The Botanical Garden, School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hughes NM, Connors MK, Grace MH, Lila MA, Willans BN, Wommack AJ. The same anthocyanins served four different ways: Insights into anthocyanin structure-function relationships from the wintergreen orchid, Tipularia discolor. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 303:110793. [PMID: 33487366 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Over 500 unique anthocyanins have been described to date, which vary in color, antioxidant, light-attenuating, and antimicrobial properties. Identification of anthocyanin chemical structure may therefore serve as an important clue to their in situ function in plants. We characterized the histological and chemical structures of anthocyanins associated with diverse leaf color patterns in the terrestrial orchid, Tipularia discolor, as a step towards understanding their ultimate function. Tipularia discolor produces a single wintergreen leaf in autumn, which is drab brown in color during expansion. Upper (adaxial) surfaces of fully-expanded leaves may be green, purple-spotted, or solid purple, while lower (abaxial) surfaces are bright magenta. Our results showed that the same three cyanidin 3,7,3'-triglucosides, in similar concentrations and proportions, accounted for coloration in each of these cases, and that different colors result from differences in histological location of anthocyanins (i.e. abaxial/adaxial epidermis, mesophyll). Anthocyanins with 3,7,3' linkage positions are rare in plants, occurring only within the orchid subfamily Epidendroideae, to which Tipularia belongs. These results are important to the discussion of anthocyanin structure-function because they serve as a reminder that 1) plants may employ the same anthocyanins in different anatomical locations to achieve a broad range of colors (and potentially adaptive functions), and 2) anthocyanin chemical structure and anatomical location are influenced by phylogenetic inertia, as well as natural selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Hughes
- Department of Biology, High Point University, High Point, NC, USA.
| | | | - Mary H Grace
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, NC, USA
| | - Mary Ann Lila
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, NC, USA
| | - Brooke N Willans
- Department of Biology, High Point University, High Point, NC, USA
| | - Andrew J Wommack
- Department of Chemistry, High Point University, High Point, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Dyer AG, Jentsch A, Burd M, Garcia JE, Giejsztowt J, Camargo MGG, Tjørve E, Tjørve KMC, White P, Shrestha M. Fragmentary Blue: Resolving the Rarity Paradox in Flower Colors. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 11:618203. [PMID: 33552110 PMCID: PMC7859648 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.618203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Blue is a favored color of many humans. While blue skies and oceans are a common visual experience, this color is less frequently observed in flowers. We first review how blue has been important in human culture, and thus how our perception of blue has likely influenced the way of scientifically evaluating signals produced in nature, including approaches as disparate as Goethe's Farbenlehre, Linneaus' plant taxonomy, and current studies of plant-pollinator networks. We discuss the fact that most animals, however, have different vision to humans; for example, bee pollinators have trichromatic vision based on UV-, Blue-, and Green-sensitive photoreceptors with innate preferences for predominantly short-wavelength reflecting colors, including what we perceive as blue. The subsequent evolution of blue flowers may be driven by increased competition for pollinators, both because of a harsher environment (as at high altitude) or from high diversity and density of flowering plants (as in nutrient-rich meadows). The adaptive value of blue flowers should also be reinforced by nutrient richness or other factors, abiotic and biotic, that may reduce extra costs of blue-pigments synthesis. We thus provide new perspectives emphasizing that, while humans view blue as a less frequently evolved color in nature, to understand signaling, it is essential to employ models of biologically relevant observers. By doing so, we conclude that short wavelength reflecting blue flowers are indeed frequent in nature when considering the color vision and preferences of bees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian G. Dyer
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Anke Jentsch
- Department of Disturbance Ecology, Bayreuth Center for Ecology and Environmental Research, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Martin Burd
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jair E. Garcia
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Justyna Giejsztowt
- Department of Disturbance Ecology, Bayreuth Center for Ecology and Environmental Research, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Maria G. G. Camargo
- Phenology Lab, Biosciences Institute, Department of Biodiversity, UNESP – São Paulo State University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Even Tjørve
- Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | | | - Peter White
- Department of Biology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Mani Shrestha
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Stavenga DG, Leertouwer HL, Dudek B, van der Kooi CJ. Coloration of Flowers by Flavonoids and Consequences of pH Dependent Absorption. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 11:600124. [PMID: 33488645 PMCID: PMC7820715 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.600124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Flavonoid pigments are key determinants of flower colors. As absorption spectra of flavonoids are known to be severely pH-dependent, cellular pH will play a crucial role in flower coloration. The flavonoids are concentrated in the vacuoles of the flowers' epidermal cells, and thus the pigments' absorption spectra are modulated by the vacuolar pH. Here we study the pH dependence of flavonoid absorption spectra in extracts from flowers of two poppy species Papaver dubium (red) and Meconopsis cambrica (orange), and a white and red Mandevilla sanderi variety. In the red poppy and Mandevilla flowers, absorption spectra of the cyanidin- and pelargonidin-based anthocyanins peak in the blue-green-wavelength range at low pH, but exhibit a distinct bathochromic shift at higher pH. This shift to longer wavelengths is not found for the blue-absorbing nudicaulin derivatives of M. cambrica, which have a similar absorption spectrum at low and high pH. The pH-dependent absorption changes of the white M. sanderi's flavonoid remained restricted to the UV. An analysis of the spectra with logistic functions suggests that the pH-dependent characteristics of the basic states of flavonols and anthocyanins are related. The implications of tuning of pH and pigment absorption spectra for studies on flower color evolution are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Doekele G. Stavenga
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Hein L. Leertouwer
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Bettina Dudek
- Research Group Biosynthesis/NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Casper J. van der Kooi
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cavallini-Speisser Q, Morel P, Monniaux M. Petal Cellular Identities. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:745507. [PMID: 34777425 PMCID: PMC8579033 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.745507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Petals are typified by their conical epidermal cells that play a predominant role for the attraction and interaction with pollinators. However, cell identities in the petal can be very diverse, with different cell types in subdomains of the petal, in different cell layers, and depending on their adaxial-abaxial or proximo-distal position in the petal. In this mini-review, we give an overview of the main cell types that can be found in the petal and describe some of their functions. We review what is known about the genetic basis for the establishment of these cellular identities and their possible relation with petal identity and polarity specifiers expressed earlier during petal development, in an attempt to bridge the gap between organ identity and cell identity in the petal.
Collapse
|
14
|
Ortiz PL, Fernández‐Díaz P, Pareja D, Escudero M, Arista M. Do visual traits honestly signal floral rewards at community level? Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro L. Ortiz
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Pilar Fernández‐Díaz
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Daniel Pareja
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Marcial Escudero
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Montserrat Arista
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Dudek B, Schneider B, Hilger HH, Stavenga DG, Martínez-Harms J. Highly different flavonol content explains geographic variations in the UV reflecting properties of flowers of the corn poppy, Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae). PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2020; 178:112457. [PMID: 32692661 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2020.112457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Papaver rhoeas, the corn poppy, is a very common weed in cereal fields all over the world. Its flowers generally display a bright red coloration, but their reflectance in the ultraviolet (UV) wavelength range varies geographically. Whereas the UV reflectance of East Mediterranean flowers is minor, that of Central European ones is substantial. By comparing the pigmentation of the differently reflecting flowers, we found that only East Mediterranean flower petals contain high amounts of UV absorbing flavonol glycosides. The most abundant compounds were isolated by solid phase extraction and preparative HPLC, and their structures were elucidated by NMR and HRESI-MS, yielding seven kaempferol and quercetin glycosides, mostly unknown in P. rhoeas petals. Additionally, reflectance and transmittance measurements revealed that wavelength-selective scattering effects do not contribute to the flower color differences observed within this species. Possible abiotic and biotic factors influencing the UV reflecting properties of East Mediterranean and Central European poppies are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Dudek
- Research Group Biosynthesis/NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Bernd Schneider
- Research Group Biosynthesis/NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Hartmut H Hilger
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Institute of Biology - Botany, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr 6, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Doekele G Stavenga
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, NL-9747, AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jaime Martínez-Harms
- INIA La Cruz, Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Chorrillos 86, 2280454, La Cruz, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wang X, Wen M, Qian X, Pei N, Zhang D. Plants are visited by more pollinator species than pollination syndromes predicted in an oceanic island community. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13918. [PMID: 32811900 PMCID: PMC7434763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70954-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The pollination syndrome concept has provided powerful utility in understanding the evolution and adaptation of floral traits. However, the utility of this conception has been questioned on the grounds that flowers usually attract a broader spectrum of visitors than one might expect. Furthermore, the relationship between plant specialization and floral traits is poorly understood. Here, we examined the applicability of using the pollination syndrome to predict the pollinators of plants on Yongxing Island. We used the species-level specialization of pollination networks to compare the difference of plant ecological specialization among floral traits. The result of full model was not significant, indicating that floral traits did not affect the pollinator functional groups. The five floral traits explained only 22.5% of the pollinator's visitation preference. Our results showed that plants were visited by more pollinator species than pollination syndromes predicted. Plants with restrictive flowers showed higher specialization than those with unrestrictive flowers, while other floral traits exhibited no significant effect on plant specialization. Generalized pollination system on oceanic island might influence the predictive accuracy of pollination syndromes and the relationship between floral traits and plant ecological specialization. Our findings highlighted the utility and limitations of pollination syndromes concept in oceanic island communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, Guangdong, China
| | - Meihong Wen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, Guangdong, China
| | - Xin Qian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, Guangdong, China
| | - Nancai Pei
- Research Institute of Tropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dianxiang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, Guangdong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Martínez-Harms J, Hadar R, Márquez N, Menzel R, Shmida A, Stavenga DG, Vorobyev M. Enhanced UV-Reflection Facilitated a Shift in the Pollination System of the Red Poppy, Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae). PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9080927. [PMID: 32708009 PMCID: PMC7464000 DOI: 10.3390/plants9080927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary change is considered a major factor influencing the invasion of new habitats by plants. Yet, evidence on how such modifications promote range expansion remains rather limited. Here we investigated flower color modifications in the red poppy, Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae), as a result of its introduction into Central Europe and the impact of those modifications on its interactions with pollinators. We found that while flowers of Eastern Mediterranean poppies reflect exclusively in the red part of the spectrum, those of Central European poppies reflect both red and ultraviolet (UV) light. This change coincides with a shift from pollination by glaphyrid beetles (Glaphyridae) to bees. Glaphyrids have red-sensitive photoreceptors that are absent in bees, which therefore will not be attracted by colors of exclusively red-reflecting flowers. However, UV-reflecting flowers are easily detectable by bees, as revealed by visual modeling. In the North Mediterranean, flowers with low and high UV reflectance occur sympatrically. We hypothesize that Central European populations of P. rhoeas were initially polymorphic with respect to their flower color and that UV reflection drove a shift in the pollination system of P. rhoeas that facilitated its spread across Europe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Martínez-Harms
- Institut für Biologie-Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 1–3, 14195 Berlin, Germany; (R.H.); (N.M.); (R.M.)
- INIA La Cruz, Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Chorrillos 86, La Cruz 2280454, Chile
- Correspondence:
| | - Ravit Hadar
- Institut für Biologie-Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 1–3, 14195 Berlin, Germany; (R.H.); (N.M.); (R.M.)
| | - Natalia Márquez
- Institut für Biologie-Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 1–3, 14195 Berlin, Germany; (R.H.); (N.M.); (R.M.)
| | - Randolf Menzel
- Institut für Biologie-Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 1–3, 14195 Berlin, Germany; (R.H.); (N.M.); (R.M.)
| | - Avi Shmida
- Department of Ecology, Evolution & Behaviour, Center for the Study of Rationality, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel;
| | - Doekele G. Stavenga
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, NL-9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Misha Vorobyev
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand;
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Garcia JE, Shrestha M, Ospina-Rozo L, Dekiwadia C, Field MR, Ma JS, Tran N, Dyer AG, Fox K, Greentree AD. Iridescence and hydrophobicity have no clear delineation that explains flower petal micro-surface. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10685. [PMID: 32606366 PMCID: PMC7326983 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67663-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant organs including flowers and leaves typically have a variety of different micro-structures present on the epidermal surface. These structures can produce measurable optical effects with viewing angle including shifts in peak reflectance and intensity; however, these different structures can also modulate hydrophobic properties of the surfaces. For some species optical effects have been proposed to act as signals to enhance pollination interactions, whilst the ability to efficiently shed water provides physiological advantages to plants in terms of gas exchange and reducing infections. Currently, little is known about epidermal surface structure of flowering plants in the Southern Hemisphere, and how micro-surface may be related with either hydrophobicity or visual signalling. We measured four Australian native species and two naturalised species using a combination of techniques including SEM imaging, spectral sampling with a goniometer and contact angle measurements. Spectral data were evaluated in relation to published psychophysics results for important pollinators and reveal that potential visual changes, where present, were unlikely to be perceived by relevant pollinators. Nevertheless, hydrophobicity also did not simply explain petal surfaces as similar structures could in some cases result in very different levels of water repellency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jair E Garcia
- Bio-Inspired Digital Sensing Solutions (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia.
| | - Mani Shrestha
- Bio-Inspired Digital Sensing Solutions (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia.,Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Laura Ospina-Rozo
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3053, Australia
| | - Chaitali Dekiwadia
- RMIT Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility (RMMF), RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
| | - Matthew R Field
- RMIT Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility (RMMF), RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
| | - Ji Sheng Ma
- Monash Centre for Electron Microscopy (MCEM), Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Nhiem Tran
- Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
| | - Adrian G Dyer
- Bio-Inspired Digital Sensing Solutions (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Kate Fox
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
| | - Andrew D Greentree
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kraaij M, van der Kooi CJ. Surprising absence of association between flower surface microstructure and pollination system. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2020; 22:177-183. [PMID: 31710761 PMCID: PMC7064994 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The epidermal cells of flowers come in different shapes and have different functions, but how they evolved remains largely unknown. Floral micro-texture can provide tactile cues to insects, and increases in surface roughness by means of conical (papillose) epidermal cells may facilitate flower handling by landing insect pollinators. Whether flower microstructure correlates with pollination system remains unknown. Here, we investigate the floral epidermal microstructure in 29 (congeneric) species pairs with contrasting pollination system. We test whether flowers pollinated by bees and/or flies feature more structured, rougher surfaces than flowers pollinated by non-landing moths or birds and flowers that self-pollinate. In contrast with earlier studies, we find no correlation between epidermal microstructure and pollination system. The shape, cell height and roughness of floral epidermal cells varies among species, but is not correlated with pollinators at large. Intriguingly, however, we find that the upper (adaxial) flower surface that surrounds the reproductive organs and often constitutes the floral display is markedly more structured than the lower (abaxial) surface. We thus conclude that conical epidermal cells probably play a role in plant reproduction other than providing grip or tactile cues, such as increasing hydrophobicity or enhancing the visual signal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Kraaij
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenthe Netherlands
| | - C. J. van der Kooi
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenthe Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
van der Kooi CJ, Kevan PG, Koski MH. The thermal ecology of flowers. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2019; 124:343-353. [PMID: 31206146 PMCID: PMC6798827 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcz073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obtaining an optimal flower temperature can be crucial for plant reproduction because temperature mediates flower growth and development, pollen and ovule viability, and influences pollinator visitation. The thermal ecology of flowers is an exciting, yet understudied field of plant biology. SCOPE This review focuses on several attributes that modify exogenous heat absorption and retention in flowers. We discuss how flower shape, orientation, heliotropic movements, pubescence, coloration, opening-closing movements and endogenous heating contribute to the thermal balance of flowers. Whenever the data are available, we provide quantitative estimates of how these floral attributes contribute to heating of the flower, and ultimately plant fitness. OUTLOOK Future research should establish form-function relationships between floral phenotypes and temperature, determine the fitness effects of the floral microclimate, and identify broad ecological correlates with heat capture mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Casper J van der Kooi
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Peter G Kevan
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Matthew H Koski
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Colour preferences of Tetragonula carbonaria Sm. stingless bees for colour morphs of the Australian native orchid Caladenia carnea. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2019; 205:347-361. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-019-01346-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|