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Crossley DA, Crossley JL, Conner JL, Smith B, Elsey R, Nelson D, Wang T. Short communication: Characterizing arterial and venous blood gases over the gas exchange surface, the chorioallantoic membrane, of embryonic American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) at two points of development. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2024; 290:111575. [PMID: 38220130 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2024.111575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Assessments of arterial and venous blood gases are required to understand the function of respiratory organs in animals at different stages of development. We measured blood gases in the arteries entering and veins leaving the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) in embryonic alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). The CAM accounts for virtually all gas exchange in these animals, and we hypothesized that the CAM vasculature would be larger in eggs incubated in hypoxia (10% O2 for 50% or 70% of incubation), which would be reflected in a lower partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2). Contrary to this hypothesis, our measurements revealed no effects of hypoxic incubation on PCO2, and seemingly no increase in vascularization of the CAM in response to incubation in 10% O2. PCO2 was lower on the venous side, but only significantly different from arterial blood at 70% of incubation. The calculated blood flow to the CAM increased with development and was lower in both groups of alligators that had been incubated in hypoxia. Future studies should include measurements of blood parameters taken from embryos held in conditions that mirror incubation O2 levels, in combination with direct measurements of CAM artery blood flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA.
| | - Janna L Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Justin L Conner
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Brandt Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Ruth Elsey
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Grand Chenier Louisiana, LA, USA
| | - Derek Nelson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Tobias Wang
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Denmark
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Crossley JL, Smith B, Tull M, Elsey RM, Wang T, Crossley DA. Hypoxic incubation at 50% of atmospheric levels shifts the cardiovascular response to acute hypoxia in American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis. J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:545-556. [PMID: 37615772 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-023-01510-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
We designed a series of studies to investigate whether hypoxia (10% O2) from 20% of incubation to hatching, or from 20 to 50% of incubation, affects cardiovascular function when juvenile American alligators reached an age of 4-5 years compared to juveniles that were incubated in 21% O2. At this age, we measured blood flows in all the major arteries as well as heart rate, blood pressure, and blood gases in animals in normoxia and acute hypoxia (10% O2 and 5% O2). In all three groups, exposure to acute hypoxia of 10% O2 caused a decrease in blood O2 concentration and an increase in heart rate in 4-5-year-old animals, with limited effects on blood flow in the major outflow vessels of the heart. In response to more acute hypoxia (5% O2), where blood O2 concentration decreased even further, we measured increased heart rate and blood flow in the right aorta, subclavian artery, carotid artery, and pulmonary artery; however, blood flow in the left aorta either decreased or did not change. Embryonic exposure to hypoxia increased the threshold for eliciting an increase in heart rate indicative of a decrease in sensitivity. Alligators that had been incubated in hypoxia also had higher arterial PCO2 values in normoxia, suggesting a reduction in ventilation relative to metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janna L Crossley
- Department of Surgery, Center for Organogenesis and Trauma, University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX, 76203, USA
| | - Brandt Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX, 76203, USA
| | - Melissa Tull
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX, 76203, USA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA, 70643, USA
| | - Tobias Wang
- Department of Biology, Zoophysiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX, 76203, USA.
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Smith B, Crossley JL, Conner J, Elsey RM, Wang T, Crossley DA. Exposure to hypoxia during embryonic development affects blood flow patterns and heart rate in juvenile American alligators during digestion. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2023; 282:111440. [PMID: 37169243 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The developmental environment can alter an organism's phenotype through epigenetic mechanisms. We incubated eggs from American alligators in 10% O2 (hypoxia) to investigate the functional plasticity of blood flow patterns in response to feeding later in life. Digestion is associated with marked elevations of metabolism, and we therefore used the feeding-induced stimulation of tissue O2 demand to determine whether there are lasting effects of developmental hypoxia on the cardiovascular response to digestion later in life. In all animals studied, digestion elicited tachycardia and an elevation of blood flow in the right aorta, left aorta, and the pulmonary artery, whereas flows in the carotid and subclavian artery did not change. We found that heart rate and systemic blood flow remained elevated for a longer time period in juvenile alligators that had been incubated in hypoxia; we also found that the pulmonary blood flow was elevated at 24, 36, and 48 h. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that exposure to hypoxia during incubation has lasting effects on the hemodynamics of juvenile alligators 4 years after hatching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandt Smith
- University of North Texas, Department of Biological Sciences, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Janna L Crossley
- University of North Texas, Department of Biological Sciences, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX 76203, USA; Department of Surgery, Center for Organogenesis and Trauma, University of Texas Southwestern, TX 75390, USA
| | - Justin Conner
- University of North Texas, Department of Biological Sciences, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA 70643, USA
| | - Tobias Wang
- Department of Biology- Zoophysiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Dane A Crossley
- University of North Texas, Department of Biological Sciences, 1155 Union Circle, Denton, TX 76203, USA.
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Galli GLJ, Lock MC, Smith KLM, Giussani DA, Crossley DA. Effects of Developmental Hypoxia on the Vertebrate Cardiovascular System. Physiology (Bethesda) 2023; 38:0. [PMID: 36317939 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00022.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental hypoxia has profound and persistent effects on the vertebrate cardiovascular system, but the nature, magnitude, and long-term outcome of the hypoxic consequences are species specific. Here we aim to identify common and novel cardiovascular responses among vertebrates that encounter developmental hypoxia, and we discuss the possible medical and ecological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina L J Galli
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Mitchell C Lock
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Kerri L M Smith
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Dino A Giussani
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas
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Prenatal hypoxia affects scaling of blood pressure and arterial wall mechanics in the common snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2021; 260:111023. [PMID: 34224856 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.111023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In reptiles, exposure to hypoxia during embryonic development affects several cardiovascular parameters. These modifications may impose different mechanical stress to the arterial system, and we speculated that the arterial wall of major outflow vessels would be modified accordingly. Since non-crocodilian reptiles possess a partially divided ventricle, ensuing similar systemic and pulmonary systolic pressures, we investigated how morphological and mechanical properties of segments from the left aortic arch (LAo) and the proximal and distal segments of the left pulmonary artery (LPAp and LPAd, respectively) change as body mass (Mb) increases. Eggs from common snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina, were incubated under normoxia (21% O2; N21) or hypoxia (10% O2; H10), hatched and maintained in normoxia thereafter. Turtles (0.11-6.85 kg) were cannulated to measure arterial pressures, and an injection of adrenaline was used to increase pressures. Portions of the LAo, LPAp and LPAd were fixed under physiological hydrostatic pressures for histology and mechanical assessment. Arterial pressures increased with Mb for N21 but not for H10. Although mechanical and functional characteristics from the LPAp and LPAd were similar between N21 and H10, wall thickness from LAo did not change with Mb in the H10 group, thus wall stress increased in larger turtles. This indicates that larger H10 turtles probably experience an elevated probability of arterial wall rupture without concomitant changes in the cardiovascular system to prevent it. Finally, collagen content of the LPAp and LAo was smaller than in LPAd, suggesting a more distensible arterial wall could attenuate higher pressures from larger turtles.
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Filogonio R, Dubansky BD, Dubansky BH, Wang T, Elsey RM, Leite CAC, Crossley DA. Arterial wall thickening normalizes arterial wall tension with growth in American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis. J Comp Physiol B 2021; 191:553-562. [PMID: 33629153 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-021-01353-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Arterial wall tension increases with luminal radius and arterial pressure. Hence, as body mass (Mb) increases, associated increases in radius induces larger tension. Thus, it could be predicted that high tension would increase the potential for rupture of the arterial wall. Studies on mammals have focused on systemic arteries and have shown that arterial wall thickness increases with Mb and normalizes tension. Reptiles are good models to study scaling because some species exhibit large body size range associated with growth, thus, allowing for ontogenetic comparisons. We used post hatch American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis, ranging from 0.12 to 6.80 kg (~ 60-fold) to investigate how both the right aortic arch (RAo) and the left pulmonary artery (LPA) change with Mb. We tested two possibilities: (i) wall thickness increases with Mb and normalizes wall tension, such that stress (stress = tension/thickness) remains unchanged; (ii) collagen content scales with Mb and increases arterial strength. We measured heart rate and systolic and mean pressures from both systemic and pulmonary circulations in anesthetized animals. Once stabilized alligators were injected with adrenaline to induce a physiologically relevant increase in pressure. Heart rate decreased and systemic pressures increased with Mb; pulmonary pressures remained unchanged. Both the RAo and LPA were fixed under physiological hydrostatic pressures and displayed larger radius, wall tension and thickness as Mb increased, thus, stress was independent from Mb; relative collagen content was unchanged. We conclude that increased wall thickness normalizes tension and reduces the chances of arterial walls rupturing in large alligators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Filogonio
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, 13565-905, Brazil.
| | - Benjamin D Dubansky
- Department of Biological Sciences, Developmental Integrative Biology Cluster, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, 76203-5220, USA
| | - Brooke H Dubansky
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences and Public Health, Tarleton State University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Tobias Wang
- Section for Zoophysiology, Department of Biosciences, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA, 70643, USA
| | - Cléo A C Leite
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Developmental Integrative Biology Cluster, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, 76203-5220, USA
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Nørgaard S, Joyce W, Jensen MF, Enok S, Skovgaard N, Wang T. Histamine exerts both direct H 2-mediated and indirect catecholaminergic effects on heart rate in pythons. J Comp Physiol B 2021; 191:347-355. [PMID: 33474644 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-020-01338-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate heart is regulated by excitatory adrenergic and inhibitory cholinergic innervations, as well as non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) factors that may be circulating in the blood or released from the autonomic nerves. As an example of NANC signaling, an increased histaminergic tone, acting through stimulation of H2 receptors, contributes markedly to the rise in heart rate during digestion in pythons. In addition to the direct effects of histamine, it is also known that histamine can reinforce the cholinergic and adrenergic signaling. Thus, to further our understanding of the histaminergic regulation of the cardiovascular response in pythons, we designed a series of in vivo experiments complemented by in vitro experiments on sinoatrial and vascular ring preparations. We demonstrate the tachycardic mechanism of histamine works partly through a direct binding of cardiac H2 receptors and in part through a myocardial histamine-induced catecholamine release, which strengthens the sympathetic adrenergic signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nørgaard
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - William Joyce
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Maja Fuhlendorff Jensen
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Sanne Enok
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Nini Skovgaard
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Tobias Wang
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, building 1131, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
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Abstract
In the 1950s, Arthur C. Guyton removed the heart from its pedestal in cardiovascular physiology by arguing that cardiac output is primarily regulated by the peripheral vasculature. This is counterintuitive, as modulating heart rate would appear to be the most obvious means of regulating cardiac output. In this Review, we visit recent and classic advances in comparative physiology in light of this concept. Although most vertebrates increase heart rate when oxygen demands rise (e.g. during activity or warming), experimental evidence suggests that this tachycardia is neither necessary nor sufficient to drive a change in cardiac output (i.e. systemic blood flow, Q̇ sys) under most circumstances. Instead, Q̇ sys is determined by the interplay between vascular conductance (resistance) and capacitance (which is mainly determined by the venous circulation), with a limited and variable contribution from heart function (myocardial inotropy). This pattern prevails across vertebrates; however, we also highlight the unique adaptations that have evolved in certain vertebrate groups to regulate venous return during diving bradycardia (i.e. inferior caval sphincters in diving mammals and atrial smooth muscle in turtles). Going forward, future investigation of cardiovascular responses to altered metabolic rate should pay equal consideration to the factors influencing venous return and cardiac filling as to the factors dictating cardiac function and heart rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Joyce
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark .,Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Tobias Wang
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Growing up gator: a proteomic perspective on cardiac maturation in an oviparous reptile, the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). J Comp Physiol B 2020; 190:243-252. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-020-01257-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Smith B, Crossley JL, Elsey RM, Hicks JW, Crossley DA. Embryonic developmental oxygen preconditions cardiovascular functional response to acute hypoxic exposure and maximal β-adrenergic stimulation of anesthetized juvenile American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.205419. [PMID: 31548289 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the embryonic environment on juvenile phenotypes are widely recognized. We investigated the effect of embryonic hypoxia on the cardiovascular phenotype of 4-year-old American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). We hypothesized that embryonic 10% O2 preconditions cardiac function, decreasing the reduction in cardiac contractility associated with acute 5% O2 exposure in juvenile alligators. Our findings indicate that dobutamine injections caused a 90% increase in systolic pressure in juveniles that were incubated in 21% and 10% O2, with the 10% O2 group responding with a greater rate of ventricular relaxation and greater left ventricle output compared with the 21% O2 group. Further, our findings indicate that juvenile alligators that experienced embryonic hypoxia have a faster rate of ventricular relaxation, greater left ventricle stroke volume and greater cardiac power following β-adrenergic stimulation, compared with juvenile alligators that did not experience embryonic hypoxia. When juveniles were exposed to 5% O2 for 20 min, normoxic-incubated juveniles had a 50% decline in left ventricle maximal rate of pressure development and maximal pressure; however, these parameters were unaffected and decreased less in the hypoxic-incubated juveniles. These data indicate that embryonic hypoxia in crocodilians alters the cardiovascular phenotype, changing the juvenile response to acute hypoxia and β-adrenergic stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandt Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Janna L Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA 70643, USA
| | - James W Hicks
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
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Wang T, Joyce W, Hicks JW. Similitude in the cardiorespiratory responses to exercise across vertebrates. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Filogonio R, Crossley DA. Long term effects of chronic prenatal exposure to hypercarbia on organ growth and cardiovascular responses to adrenaline and hypoxia in common snapping turtles. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2019; 234:10-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Alderman SL, Crossley DA, Elsey RM, Gillis TE. Hypoxia-induced reprogramming of the cardiac phenotype in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) revealed by quantitative proteomics. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8592. [PMID: 31197188 PMCID: PMC6565670 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45023-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxic exposure during development can have a profound influence on offspring physiology, including cardiac dysfunction, yet many reptile embryos naturally experience periods of hypoxia in buried nests. American alligators experimentally exposed to developmental hypoxia demonstrate morphological and functional changes to the heart that persist into later life stages; however, the molecular bases of these changes remain unknown. We tested if targeted and persistent changes in steady-state protein expression underlie this hypoxic heart phenotype, using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) proteomics. Alligator eggs were reared under normoxia or 10% hypoxia, then either sampled (embryo) or returned to normoxia for 2 years (juvenile). Three salient findings emerge from the integrated analysis of the 145 differentially expressed proteins in hypoxia-reared animals: (1) significant protein-protein interaction networks were identified only in up-regulated proteins, indicating that the effects of developmental hypoxia are stimulatory and directed; (2) the up-regulated proteins substantially enriched processes related to protein turnover, cellular organization, and metabolic pathways, supporting increased resource allocation towards building and maintaining a higher functioning heart; and (3) the juvenile cardiac proteome retained many of the signature changes observed in embryonic hearts, supporting long-term reprogramming of cardiac myocytes induced by hypoxia during critical periods of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Alderman
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Developmental Integrative Biology Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, 76203-5017, USA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, Louisiana, 70643, USA
| | - Todd E Gillis
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
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