Immunological characterization of two types of ionocytes in the inner ear epithelium of Pacific Chub Mackerel (Scomber japonicus)

Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural characterization of the inner ear epithelial cells of splitnose rockfish (Sebastes diploproa)

The inner ear of teleost fish regulates the ionic and acid-base chemistry and secretes protein matrix into the endolymph to facilitate otolith biomineralization, which is used to maintain vestibular and auditory functions. The otolith is biomineralized in a concentric ring pattern corresponding to seasonal growth, and this calcium carbonate (CaCO3) polycrystal has become a vital aging and life-history tool for fishery managers, ecologists, and conservation biologists. Moreover, biomineralization patterns are sensitive to environmental variability including climate change, thereby threatening the accuracy and relevance of otolith-reliant toolkits. However, the cellular biology of the inner ear is poorly characterized, which is a hurdle for a mechanistic understanding of the underlying processes. This study provides a systematic characterization of the cell types in the inner ear of splitnose rockfish (Sebastes diploproa). Scanning electron microscopy revealed the apical morphologies of six inner ear cell types. In addition, immunostaining and confocal microscopy characterized the expression and subcellular localization of the proteins Na+-K+-ATPase, carbonic anhydrase, V-type H+-ATPase, Na+-K+-2Cl--cotransporter, otolith matrix protein 1, and otolin-1 in six inner ear cell types bordering the endolymph. This fundamental cytological characterization of the rockfish inner ear epithelium illustrates the intricate physiological processes involved in otolith biomineralization and highlights how greater mechanistic understanding is necessary to predict their multistressor responses to future climate change.

Heterogeneity of otolith chemical composition from two-dimensional mapping: Relationship with biomineralization mechanisms and implications for microchemistry analyses

Although otoliths are widely used as archives to infer life-history traits and habitat use in fishes, their biomineralization process remains poorly understood. This lack of knowledge is problematic as it can lead to misinterpretation of the different types of signals (e.g., optical or chemical) that provide basic data for research in fish ecology, fisheries management, and species conservation. Otolith calcification relies on a complex system involving a pericrystalline fluid, the endolymph, whose organic and inorganic compositions are spatially heterogeneous for some constituents. This property stems from the particular structure of the calcifying saccular epithelium. In this study, we explored the spatial heterogeneity of elemental incorporation in otoliths for two species of high economic interest, European hake Merluccius merluccius (L. 1758) and European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (L. 1758). Two-dimensional mappings of chemical elements were obtained using UV high-repetition-rate femtosecond laser ablation (fs-LA) system coupled to a high-resolution inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometer analyses on transverse sections of sagittae. Results highlighted a clear asymmetry between proximal (sulcus) and distal (antisulcus) concentrations for elements such as magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), manganese (Mn), and potassium (K) with concentration gradient directions that varied depending on the element. Strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba) did not show a proximo-distal gradient. These results are discussed in light of current knowledge on the endolymph composition and the mechanisms that lead to its compartmentalization, highlighting the need for further research on otolith biomineralization. Operational implications for studies based on otolith chemical composition are also discussed with emphasis on advice for sampling strategies to avoid analytical biases and the need for in-depth analyses of analytical settings before comparing otolith signatures between species or geographical areas.

Soluble adenylyl cyclase coordinates intracellular pH homeostasis and biomineralization in calcifying cells of a marine animal

Biomineralizing cells concentrate dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and remove protons from the site of mineral precipitation. However, the molecular regulatory mechanisms that orchestrate pH homeostasis and biomineralization of calcifying cells are poorly understood. Here, we report that the acid-base sensing enzyme soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) coordinates intracellular pH (pH_i) regulation in the calcifying primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) of sea urchin larvae. Single-cell transcriptomics, in situ hybridization, and immunocytochemistry elucidated the spatiotemporal expression of sAC during skeletogenesis. Live pH_i imaging of PMCs revealed that the downregulation of sAC activity with two structurally unrelated small molecules inhibited pH_i regulation of PMCs, an effect that was rescued by the addition of cell-permeable cAMP. Pharmacological sAC inhibition also significantly reduced normal spicule growth and spicule regeneration, establishing a link between PMC pH_i regulation and biomineralization. Finally, increased expression of sAC mRNA was detected during skeleton remineralization and exposure to CO₂-induced acidification. These findings suggest that transcriptional regulation of sAC is required to promote remineralization and to compensate for acidic stress. This work highlights the central role of sAC in coordinating acid-base regulation and biomineralization in calcifying cells of a marine animal.

Optimizing immunostaining of archival fish samples to enhance museum collection potential

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a powerful biochemical technique that uses antibodies to specifically label and visualize proteins of interests within biological samples. However, fluid-preserved specimens within natural history collection often use fixatives and protocols that induce high background signal (autofluorescence), which hampers IHC as it produces low signal-to-noise ratio. Here, we explored techniques to reduce autofluorescence using sodium borohydride (SBH), citrate buffer, and their combination on fish tissue preserved with paraformaldehyde, formaldehyde, ethanol, and glutaraldehyde. We found SBH was the most effective quenching technique, and applied this pretreatment to the gill or skin of 10 different archival fishes - including specimens that had been preserved in formaldehyde or ethanol for up to 65 and 37 years, respectively. The enzyme Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) was successfully immunostained and imaged using confocal fluorescence microscopy, allowing for the identification and characterization of NKA-rich ionocytes essential for fish ionic and acid-base homeostasis. Altogether, our SBH-based method facilitates the use of IHC on archival samples, and unlocks the historical record on fish biological responses to environmental factors (such as climate change) using specimens from natural history collections that were preserved decades to centuries ago.

Physical effects of sound exposure from underwater explosions on Pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus): Effects on the inner ear

Studies of the effects of sounds from underwater explosions on fishes have not included examination of potential effects on the ear. Caged Pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus) located at seven distances (between approximately 35 and 800 m) from a single detonation of 4.5 kg of C4 explosives were exposed. After fish were recovered from the cages, the sensory epithelia of the saccular region of the inner ears were prepared and then examined microscopically. The number of hair cell (HC) ciliary bundles was counted at ten preselected 2500 μm² regions. HCs were significantly reduced in fish exposed to the explosion as compared to the controls. The extent of these differences varied by saccular region, with damage greater in the rostral and caudal ends and minimal in the central region. The extent of effect also varied in animals at different distances from the explosion, with damage occurring in fish as far away as 400 m. While extrapolation to other species and other conditions (e.g., depth, explosive size, and distance) must be performed with extreme caution, the effects of explosive sounds should be considered when environmental impacts are estimated for marine projects.

Elucidating the acid-base mechanisms underlying otolith overgrowth in fish exposed to ocean acidification

Over a decade ago, ocean acidification (OA) exposure was reported to induce otolith overgrowth in teleost fish. This phenomenon was subsequently confirmed in multiple species; however, the underlying physiological causes remain unknown. Here, we report that splitnose rockfish (Sebastes diploproa) exposed to ~1600 μatm pCO₂(pH ~7.5) were able to fully regulated the pH of both blood and endolymph (the fluid that surrounds the otolith within the inner ear). However, while blood was regulated around pH 7.80, the endolymph was regulated around pH ~8.30. These different pH setpoints result in increased pCO₂diffusion into the endolymph, which in turn leads to proportional increases in endolymph [HCO₃^-] and [CO₃^2-]. Endolymph pH regulation despite the increased pCO₂suggests enhanced H⁺removal. However, a lack of differences in inner ear bulk and cell-specific Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and vacuolar type H⁺-ATPase protein abundance localization pointed out to activation of preexisting ATPases, non-bicarbonate pH buffering, or both, as the mechanism for endolymph pH-regulation. These results provide the first direct evidence showcasing the acid-base chemistry of the endolymph of OA-exposed fish favors otolith overgrowth, and suggests that this phenomenon will be more pronounced in species that count with more robust blood and endolymph pH regulatory mechanisms.

Beta-Amyloid (Aβ1-42) Increases the Expression of NKCC1 in the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with an increasing need for developing disease-modifying treatments as current therapies only provide marginal symptomatic relief. Recent evidence suggests the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system undergoes remodeling in AD, disrupting the excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) balance in the brain. Altered expression levels of K-Cl-2 (KCC2) and N-K-Cl-1 (NKCC1), which are cation–chloride cotransporters (CCCs), have been implicated in disrupting GABAergic activity by regulating GABA_A receptor signaling polarity in several neurological disorders, but these have not yet been explored in AD. NKCC1 and KCC2 regulate intracellular chloride [Cl⁻]_i by accumulating and extruding Cl⁻, respectively. Increased NKCC1 expression in mature neurons has been reported in these disease conditions, and bumetanide, an NKCC1 inhibitor, is suggested to show potential therapeutic benefits. This study used primary mouse hippocampal neurons to explore if KCC2 and NKCC1 expression levels are altered following beta-amyloid (Aβ_1-42) treatment and the potential neuroprotective effects of bumetanide. KCC2 and NKCC1 expression levels were also examined in 18-months-old male C57BL/6 mice following bilateral hippocampal Aβ_1-42 stereotaxic injection. No change in KCC2 and NKCC1 expression levels were observed in mouse hippocampal neurons treated with 1 nM Aβ_1-42, but NKCC1 expression increased 30-days post-Aβ_1-42-injection in the CA1 region of the mouse hippocampus. Primary mouse hippocampal cultures were treated with 1 nM Aβ_1-42 alone or with various concentrations of bumetanide (1 µM, 10 µM, 100 µM, 1 mM) to investigate the effect of the drug on cell viability. Aβ_1-42 produced 53.1 ± 1.4% cell death after 5 days, and the addition of bumetanide did not reduce this. However, the drug at all concentrations significantly reduced cell viability, suggesting bumetanide is highly neurotoxic. In summary, these results suggest that chronic exposure to Aβ_1-42 alters the balance of KCC2 and NKCC1 expression in a region-and layer-specific manner in mouse hippocampal tissue; therefore, this process most likely contributes to altered hippocampal E/I balance in this model. Furthermore, bumetanide induces hippocampal neurotoxicity, thus questioning its suitability for AD therapy. Further investigations are required to examine the effects of Aβ_1-42 on KCC2 and NKCC1 expression and whether targeting CCCs might offer a therapeutic approach for AD.

Rapid blood acid-base regulation by European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in response to sudden exposure to high environmental CO2

Fish in coastal ecosystems can be exposed to acute variations in CO₂ of between 0.2 and 1 kPa CO₂ (2000–10,000 µatm). Coping with this environmental challenge will depend on the ability to rapidly compensate for the internal acid–base disturbance caused by sudden exposure to high environmental CO₂ (blood and tissue acidosis); however, studies about the speed of acid–base regulatory responses in marine fish are scarce. We observed that upon sudden exposure to ∼1 kPa CO₂, European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) completely regulate erythrocyte intracellular pH within ∼40 min, thus restoring haemoglobin–O₂ affinity to pre-exposure levels. Moreover, blood pH returned to normal levels within ∼2 h, which is one of the fastest acid–base recoveries documented in any fish. This was achieved via a large upregulation of net acid excretion and accumulation of HCO₃⁻ in blood, which increased from ∼4 to ∼22 mmol l⁻¹. While the abundance and intracellular localisation of gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) and Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 3 (NHE3) remained unchanged, the apical surface area of acid-excreting gill ionocytes doubled. This constitutes a novel mechanism for rapidly increasing acid excretion during sudden blood acidosis. Rapid acid–base regulation was completely prevented when the same high CO₂ exposure occurred in seawater with experimentally reduced HCO₃⁻ and pH, probably because reduced environmental pH inhibited gill H⁺ excretion via NHE3. The rapid and robust acid–base regulatory responses identified will enable European sea bass to maintain physiological performance during large and sudden CO₂ fluctuations that naturally occur in coastal environments.

Summary: European sea bass exposed to 1 kPa (10,000 µatm) CO₂ regulate blood and red cell pH within 2 h and 40 min, respectively, protecting O₂ transport capacity, via enhanced gill acid excretion.

Ion-transporting capacity and aerobic respiration of larval white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) may be resilient to ocean acidification conditions

Ocean acidification (OA) has been proposed to increase the energetic demand for acid-base regulation at the expense of larval fish growth. Here, white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) eggs and larvae were reared at control (542 ± 28 μatm) and elevated pCO₂ (1831 ± 105 μatm) until five days post-fertilization (dpf). Skin ionocytes were identified by immunodetection of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) enzyme. Larvae exposed to elevated pCO₂ possessed significantly higher skin ionocyte number and density compared to control larvae. However, when ionocyte size was accounted for, the relative ionocyte area (a proxy for total ionoregulatory capacity) was unchanged. Similarly, there were no differences in relative NKA abundance, resting O₂ consumption rate, and total length between control and treatment larvae at 5 dpf, nor in the rate at which relative ionocyte area and total length changed between 2 and 5 dpf. Altogether, our results suggest that OA conditions projected for the next century do not significantly affect the ionoregulatory capacity or energy consumption of larval white seabass. Finally, a retroactive analysis of the water in the recirculating aquarium system that housed the broodstock revealed the parents had been exposed to average pCO₂ of ~1200 μatm for at least 3.5 years prior to this experiment. Future studies should investigate whether larval white seabass are naturally resilient to OA, or if this resilience is the result of parental chronic acclimation to OA, and/or from natural selection during spawning and fertilization in elevated pCO₂.

Influence of ontogenetic development, temperature, and pCO2 on otolith calcium carbonate polymorph composition in sturgeons

Changes to calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) biomineralization in aquatic organisms is among the many predicted effects of climate change. Because otolith (hearing/orientation structures in fish) CaCO₃ precipitation and polymorph composition are controlled by genetic and environmental factors, climate change may be predicted to affect the phenotypic plasticity of otoliths. We examined precipitation of otolith polymorphs (aragonite, vaterite, calcite) during early life history in two species of sturgeon, Lake Sturgeon, (Acipenser fulvescens) and White Sturgeon (A. transmontanus), using quantitative X-ray microdiffraction. Both species showed similar fluctuations in otolith polymorphs with a significant shift in the proportions of vaterite and aragonite in sagittal otoliths coinciding with the transition to fully exogenous feeding. We also examined the effect of the environment on otolith morphology and polymorph composition during early life history in Lake Sturgeon larvae reared in varying temperature (16/22 °C) and pCO₂ (1000/2500 µatm) environments for 5 months. Fish raised in elevated temperature had significantly increased otolith size and precipitation of large single calcite crystals. Interestingly, pCO₂ had no statistically significant effect on size or polymorph composition of otoliths despite blood pH exhibiting a mild alkalosis, which is contrary to what has been observed in several studies on marine fishes. These results suggest climate change may influence otolith polymorph composition during early life history in Lake Sturgeon.

Molecular and biochemical characterization of the bicarbonate-sensing soluble adenylyl cyclase from a bony fish, the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a HC O 3   - -stimulated enzyme that produces the ubiquitous signalling molecule cAMP, and deemed an evolutionarily conserved acid-base sensor. However, its presence is not yet confirmed in bony fishes, the most abundant and diverse of vertebrates. Here, we identified sAC genes in various cartilaginous, ray-finned and lobe-finned fish species. Next, we focused on rainbow trout sAC (rtsAC) and identified 20 potential alternative spliced mRNAs coding for protein isoforms ranging in size from 28 to 186 kDa. Biochemical and kinetic analyses on purified recombinant rtsAC protein determined stimulation by HC O 3   - at physiologically relevant levels for fish internal fluids (EC₅₀ ∼ 7 mM). rtsAC activity was sensitive to KH7, LRE1, and DIDS (established inhibitors of sAC from other organisms), and insensitive to forskolin and 2,5-dideoxyadenosine (modulators of transmembrane adenylyl cyclases). Western blot and immunocytochemistry revealed high rtsAC expression in gill ion-transporting cells, hepatocytes, red blood cells, myocytes and cardiomyocytes. Analyses in the cell line RTgill-W1 suggested that some of the longer rtsAC isoforms may be preferentially localized in the nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and podosomes. These results indicate that sAC is poised to mediate multiple acid-base homeostatic responses in bony fishes, and provide cues about potential novel functions in mammals.

Changes in gill and air-breathing organ characteristics during the transition from water- to air-breathing in juvenile Arapaima gigas

The obligate air-breathing Amazonian fish, Arapaima gigas, hatch as water-breathing larvae but with development, they modify their swim bladder to an air-breathing organ (ABO) while reducing their gill filaments to avoid oxygen loss. Here, we show that significant changes already take place between 4 weeks (1.6 g) and 11 weeks (5 g) post hatch, with a reduction in gill lamellar surface area, increase in gill diffusion distance, and proliferation of the parenchyma in the ABO. By using a variety of methods, we quantified the surface area and diffusion distances of the gills and skin, and the swim bladder volume and anatomical complexity from hatch to 11-week-old juveniles. In addition, we identified the presence of two ionocyte types in the gills and show how these change with development. Until 1.6 g, A. gigas possess only the H⁺ -excreting/Na⁺ -absorbing type, while 5-g fish and adults have an additional ionocyte which likely absorbs H⁺ and Cl^- and excretes HCO₃ ^- . The ionocyte density on the gill filaments increased with age and is likely a compensatory mechanism for maintaining ion transport while reducing gill surface area. In the transition from water- to air-breathing, A. gigas likely employs a trimodal respiration utilizing gills, skin, and ABO and thus avoid a respiratory-ion regulatory compromise at the gills.

A novel acidification mechanism for greatly enhanced oxygen supply to the fish retina

Previously, we showed that the evolution of high acuity vision in fishes was directly associated with their unique pH-sensitive hemoglobins that allow O₂ to be delivered to the retina at PO₂s more than ten-fold that of arterial blood (Damsgaard et al., 2019). Here, we show strong evidence that vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPase and plasma-accessible carbonic anhydrase in the vascular structure supplying the retina act together to acidify the red blood cell leading to O₂ secretion. In vivo data indicate that this pathway primarily affects the oxygenation of the inner retina involved in signal processing and transduction, and that the evolution of this pathway was tightly associated with the morphological expansion of the inner retina. We conclude that this mechanism for retinal oxygenation played a vital role in the adaptive evolution of vision in teleost fishes.