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Morgan DM, Spainhower KB, Mossor AM, Avey‐Arroyo JA, Butcher M. Muscle architectural properties indicate a primary role in support for the pelvic limb of three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus). J Anat 2023; 243:448-466. [PMID: 37190673 PMCID: PMC10439369 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tree sloths evolved below-branch locomotion making them one of few mammalian taxa beyond primates for which suspension is nearly obligatory. Suspension requires strong limb flexor muscles that provide both propulsion and braking/support, and available locomotor kinetics data indicate that these roles differ between fore- and hindlimb pairs. Muscle structure in the pelvic limb is hypothesized to be a key anatomical correlate of function in braking/support during suspensory walking and propulsion and/or support during vertical climbing. This expectation was tested by quantifying architecture properties in the hindlimb limb musculature of brown-throated three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus: N = 7) to distinguish the roles of the flexor/extensor functional muscle groups at each joint. Measurements of muscle moment arm (rm ), mass, belly length, fascicle length, pennation angle, and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) were taken from n = 45 muscles. Overall, most muscles studied show properties for contractile excursion and fast joint rotational velocity. However, the flexor musculature is more massive (p = 0.048) and has larger PCSA (p = 0.003) than the extensors, especially at the knee joint and digits where well-developed and strong flexors are capable of applying large joint torque. Moreover, selected hip flexors/extensors and knee flexors have modified long rm that can amplify applied joint torque in muscles with otherwise long, parallel fascicles, and one muscle (m. iliopsoas) was capable of moderately high power in B. variegatus. The architectural properties observed in the hip flexors and extensors match well with roles in suspensory braking and vertical propulsion, respectively, whereas strong knee flexors and digital flexors appear to be the main muscles providing suspensory support in the pelvic limb. With aid in support by the forelimbs and the use of adaptive slow locomotion and slow muscle fiber recruitment patterns, structure-function in the tensile limb systems of sloths appears to collectively represent an additional mechanism for energy conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. M. Morgan
- Department of Chemical and Biological SciencesYoungstown State UniversityOhioYoungstownUSA
| | - K. B. Spainhower
- Department of Chemical and Biological SciencesYoungstown State UniversityOhioYoungstownUSA
| | - A. M. Mossor
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyNortheast Ohio Medical UniversityRootstownOhioUSA
- School of Biomedical SciencesKent State UniversityKentOhioUSA
| | | | - M. T. Butcher
- Department of Chemical and Biological SciencesYoungstown State UniversityOhioYoungstownUSA
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2
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Human and African ape myosin heavy chain content and the evolution of hominin skeletal muscle. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2023; 281:111415. [PMID: 36931425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Humans are unique among terrestrial mammals in our manner of walking and running, reflecting 7 to 8 Ma of musculoskeletal evolution since diverging with the genus Pan. One component of this is a shift in our skeletal muscle biology towards a predominance of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) I isoforms (i.e. slow fibers) across our pelvis and lower limbs, which distinguishes us from chimpanzees. Here, new MyHC data from 35 pelvis and hind limb muscles of a Western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) are presented. These data are combined with a similar chimpanzee dataset to assess the MyHC I content of humans in comparison to African apes (chimpanzees and gorillas) and other terrestrial mammals. The responsiveness of human skeletal muscle to behavioral interventions is also compared to the human-African ape differential. Humans are distinct from African apes and among a small group of terrestrial mammals whose pelvis and hind/lower limb muscle is slow fiber dominant, on average. Behavioral interventions, including immobilization, bed rest, spaceflight and exercise, can induce modest decreases and increases in human MyHC I content (i.e. -9.3% to 2.3%, n = 2033 subjects), but these shifts are much smaller than the mean human-African ape differential (i.e. 31%). Taken together, these results indicate muscle fiber content is likely an evolvable trait under selection in the hominin lineage. As such, we highlight potential targets of selection in the genome (e.g. regions that regulate MyHC content) that may play an important role in hominin skeletal muscle evolution.
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3
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Young MW, McKamy AJ, Dickinson E, Yarbro J, Ragupathi A, Guru N, Avey-Arroyo JA, Butcher MT, Granatosky MC. Three toes and three modes: Dynamics of terrestrial, suspensory, and vertical locomotion in brown-throated three-toed sloths (Bradypodidae, Xenarthra). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 339:383-397. [PMID: 36747379 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Living sloths exhibit numerous anatomical specializations towards inverted quadrupedalism, however, previous studies have noted a more varied locomotor repertoire than previously anticipated. In this study, we present spatiotemporal gait characteristics and triaxial kinetic data from the brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) across three locomotor modes: terrestrial quadrupedal "crawling", suspensory walking, and vertical climbing. Compared to quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking, B. variegatus adopted longer contact times and stride durations, larger duty factors, and greater speed during vertical climbing. Net fore-aft impulses were significantly greater during vertical climbing in both limb pairs than in quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking. Functionally, during quadrupedal crawling and vertical climbing, both limb pairs served propulsive roles, while differentiation between a propulsive forelimb and braking hindlimb was observed during suspension. Net tangential forces differentiated vertical climbing kinetics from the other modes of locomotion, with the introduction of bidirectional pulling and pushing forces in the forelimb and hindlimb, respectively. The net mediolateral impulses were similar in vertical climbing and quadrupedal crawling as both limb pairs directed forces in one direction, whereas during suspensory walking, the laterally dominant forelimb was opposed by the medially dominant hindlimb. In total, this study provides novel data on the diverse locomotor dynamics in a slow-moving arboreal tetrapod and posits new testable hypotheses about the neuroplasticity and ease of transitioning between locomotor behaviors. The strikingly similar kinetic profiles of quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking compared to vertical climbing suggest shared neuromuscular and mechanical demands between these mirrored locomotor modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody W Young
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Andrew J McKamy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Johnathan Yarbro
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Jonesboro, Arkansas, USA
| | - Ashwin Ragupathi
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Navjot Guru
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | | | - Michael T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA.,Center for Biomedical Innovation, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
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4
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Young MW, Granatosky MC, Avey‐Arroyo JA, Butcher MT, Dickinson E. Grip it good:
in vivo
grip force across substrate diameters in the brown‐throated three‐toed sloth (
Bradypus variegatus
). J Zool (1987) 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.13041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. W. Young
- Department of Anatomy New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine Old Westbury NY USA
| | - M. C. Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine Old Westbury NY USA
- Center for Biomedical Innovation New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine Old Westbury NY USA
| | | | - M. T. Butcher
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences Youngstown State University Youngstown OH USA
| | - E. Dickinson
- Department of Anatomy New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine Old Westbury NY USA
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Villalba-Briones R, Jiménez ER, Monros JS. Release and follow-up of a rehabilitated two-toed sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in a tropical dry forest in Ecuador. NEOTROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3897/neotropical.17.e91332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the first records of the post-release follow-up and monitoring of a rehabilitated two-toed sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) as well as freezing behavior and an inferred antagonistic interaction for this species. Two-toed sloths are nocturnal and arboreal mammals whose survival relies on their capability to remain undetected by predators. Nevertheless, in the Guayas province of Ecuador, they are among the most common mammal species in rehabilitation centers. The liberation of animals back to the forest is the main goal of rehabilitation, while the follow-up of post-release human support of animals facilitates their re-establishment in their natural habitat. Follow-up, direct observation, and Bluetooth-based monitoring of the two-toed sloths secured the survival of this species in this part of Ecuador. The range of detectability of the device used indicates its suitability for tracking low-mobility animals. After the first five days, the number of trees used per day increased, and 19 trees within 1152 m2 were visited. Daylight and movement time range showed a correlation towards detectability. The follow-up effort allowed for keeping the two-toed sloth safe for 10 days after release. Due to the difficulty monitoring nocturnal animals, economic constraints in conservation, accessibility, and safety of the animals, biodegradable Bluetooth-based backpacks are recommended to ease the location of the animal and support its survival in the wild.
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Butcher MT, Morgan DM, Spainhower KB, Thomas DR, Chadwell BA, Avey‐Arroyo JA, Kennedy SP, Cliffe RN. Myology of the pelvic limb of the brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus). J Anat 2022; 240:1048-1074. [PMID: 35037260 PMCID: PMC9119613 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Tree sloths rely on their limb flexors for bodyweight support and joint stability during suspensory locomotion and posture. This study aims to describe the myology of three-toed sloths and identify limb muscle traits that indicate modification for suspensorial habit. The pelvic limbs of the brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) were dissected, muscle belly mass was recorded, and the structural arrangements of the muscles were documented and compared with the available myological accounts for sloths. Overall, the limb musculature is simplified by containing muscles with generally long and parallel fascicles. A number of specific and informative muscle traits are additionally observed in the pelvic limb of B. variegatus: well-developed hip flexors and hip extensors each displaying several fused bellies; massive knee flexors; two heads of the m. adductor longus and m. gracilis; robust digital flexors and flexor tendons; m. tibialis cranialis muscle complex originating from the tibia and fibula and containing a modified m. extensor digitorum I longus; appreciable muscle mass devoted to ankle flexion and hindfoot supination; only m. extensor digitorum brevis acts to extend the digits. Collectively, the findings for tree sloths emphasize muscle mass and organization for suspensory support namely by the hip flexors, knee flexors, and limb adductors, for which the latter two groups may stabilize suspensory postures by exerting appreciable medially-directed force on the substrate. Specializations in the distal limb are also apparent for sustained purchase of the substrate by forceful digital flexion coupled with strong ankle flexion and supination of the hind feet, which is permitted by the reorganization of several digital extensors. Moreover, the reduction or loss of other digital flexor and ab-adductor muscles marks a dramatic simplification of the intrinsic foot musculature in B. variegatus, the extent to which varies across extant species of two- and three-toed tree sloths and likely is related to substrate preference/use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T. Butcher
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Forensic SciencesYoungstown State UniversityYoungstownOhioUSA
| | - Dakota M. Morgan
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Forensic SciencesYoungstown State UniversityYoungstownOhioUSA
| | - Kyle B. Spainhower
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Forensic SciencesYoungstown State UniversityYoungstownOhioUSA
| | - Dylan R. Thomas
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Forensic SciencesYoungstown State UniversityYoungstownOhioUSA
| | - Brad A. Chadwell
- Department of AnatomyIdaho College of Osteopathic MedicineMeridianIdahoUSA
| | | | - Sarah P. Kennedy
- Sloth Conservation FoundationPuerto Viejo de TalamancaLimonCosta Rica
| | - Rebecca N. Cliffe
- Sloth Conservation FoundationPuerto Viejo de TalamancaLimonCosta Rica
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van Boom KM, Breed D, Hughes A, Blackhurst D, Kohn TA. A novel description of the Vastus lateralis morphology of the Temminck's Ground Pangolin (Manis temminckii). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2022; 305:3463-3471. [PMID: 35357087 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The pangolin (Manidae family) is the world's most trafficked animal, yet very little is known about its physiology and metabolism primarily due to its inconspicuous and solitary nature. Skeletal muscle samples from the Vastus lateralis were collected postmortem from a single female Temminck's ground pangolin (Manis temminckii). Samples were analyzed for fiber type composition, fiber size and myosin heavy chain isoform content. The oxidative and glycolytic metabolic capacity was determined through citrate synthase, 3-hydroxyacetyl co A dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and glycogen phosphorylase enzyme activities. Lastly, antioxidant capacity was determined through superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities, and the total antioxidant capacity. The pangolin metabolic profile was then compared to other endurance and non-endurance mammals, in which data was standardized relative to human endurance athletes in order to provide context. Slow twitch type I fibers, rich in mitochondria were the predominant fiber type within the pangolin indicating a reliance on oxidative derived energy from fats and carbohydrates. This suggests that the pangolin has a high endurance capability when compared to other wild animals and human endurance athletes. This is the first study to investigate the skeletal muscle physiology and metabolism of any pangolin species, in an attempt to further understand this endangered animal and aid with conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Merle van Boom
- Department of Medical Bioscience, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa.,Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dorothy Breed
- Biodiversity Management Branch, Environmental Management Department, City of Cape Town, 53 Berkley Road, Maitland, South Africa
| | - Alix Hughes
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dee Blackhurst
- Division of Chemical Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Tertius Abraham Kohn
- Department of Medical Bioscience, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa.,Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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8
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Mossor AM, Young JW, Butcher MT. Does a suspensory lifestyle result in increased tensile strength?: Organ level material properties of sloth limb bones. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274333. [PMID: 35142360 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The material composition of vertebrate connective tissue is highly conserved across taxa. Existing data suggest that the compressive and tensile strength of limb bones are very similar despite marked variation in limb posture and locomotor patterns. However, the material properties of limb bone tissue from suspensory taxa have not been formally evaluated. Sloths are nearly obligatory in their use of below-branch suspensory locomotion and posture, thus placing their limb bones and associated soft tissue structures under routine tensile loading. It is possible that sloth limb bones are modified for enhanced tensile strength, perhaps at the expense of compressive strength. Fore- and hindlimb bones of two-toed (Choloepus hoffmanni) and three-toed (Bradypus variegatus) sloths were tested in compression and bending to evaluate this hypothesis. Strength and elastic (Young's) modulus were similarly lower in sloth limb bones during both compression and bending, as compared to pronograde taxa. Ratios of peak bending strength to compressive strength additionally were elevated (sloths: 1.4-1.7; upright taxa: 0.6-1.2) for sloth limb bones. Overall, the material properties measured from the limb bones of tree sloths support our hypothesis of predicted function in a tensile limb system. Future studies should aim to directly test bones in tension to confirm indications of elevated axial tensile strength. Nevertheless, the results herein expand understanding of functional adaptation in mammalian tissue for a range of locomotor/postural behaviors that were previously unexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Mossor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown OH 44555, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown OH, USA
| | - J W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown OH, USA
| | - M T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown OH 44555, USA
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9
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Integrative Approach Uncovers New Patterns of Ecomorphological Convergence in Slow Arboreal Xenarthrans. J MAMM EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-021-09590-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIdentifying ecomorphological convergence examples is a central focus in evolutionary biology. In xenarthrans, slow arboreality independently arose at least three times, in the two genera of ‘tree sloths’, Bradypus and Choloepus, and the silky anteater, Cyclopes. This specialized locomotor ecology is expectedly reflected by distinctive morpho-functional convergences. Cyclopes, although sharing several ecological features with ‘tree sloths’, do not fully mirror the latter in their outstandingly similar suspensory slow arboreal locomotion. We hypothesized that the morphology of Cyclopes is closer to ‘tree sloths’ than to anteaters, but yet distinct, entailing that slow arboreal xenarthrans evolved through ‘incomplete’ convergence. In a multivariate trait space, slow arboreal xenarthrans are hence expected to depart from their sister taxa evolving toward the same area, but not showing extensive phenotypical overlap, due to the distinct position of Cyclopes. Conversely, a pattern of ‘complete’ convergence (i.e., widely overlapping morphologies) is hypothesized for ‘tree sloths’. Through phylogenetic comparative methods, we quantified humeral and femoral convergence in slow arboreal xenarthrans, including a sample of extant and extinct non-slow arboreal xenarthrans. Through 3D geometric morphometrics, cross-sectional properties (CSP) and trabecular architecture, we integratively quantified external shape, diaphyseal anatomy and internal epiphyseal structure. Several traits converged in slow arboreal xenarthrans, especially those pertaining to CSP. Phylomorphospaces and quantitative convergence analyses substantiated the expected patterns of ‘incomplete’ and ‘complete’ convergence for slow arboreal xenarthrans and ‘tree sloths’, respectively. This work, highlighting previously unidentified convergence patterns, emphasizes the value of an integrative multi-pronged quantitative approach to cope with complex mechanisms underlying ecomorphological convergence.
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Sahd L, Doubell N, Bennett NC, Kotzé SH. Hind foot drumming: Myosin heavy chain muscle fiber distribution in the hind limb muscles of three African mole-rat species (Bathyergidae). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:170-183. [PMID: 34240567 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hind foot drumming as a form of seismic signaling plays a pivotal role in the communication of various mammalian species including Bathyergidae (African mole-rats). The aim of the present study was to histologically determine if the action of hind foot drumming would influence the number of type II fibers present in the hind limb muscles of two drumming (Georychus capensis and Bathyergus suillus) and one non-drumming (Cryptomys hottentotus natalensis) bathyergid species. Twenty-one frozen muscles of each species were selected for the purpose of mid-belly cryostat sections. These sections were immunohistochemically labeled for myosin heavy chain slow muscle fibers (MHCs). In addition, oxidative capacity was determined by means of histochemical staining. A high percentage of fast type II muscle fibers was found in all the functional muscle groups, although there were no statistical differences between the drumming and non-drumming species. Bathyergus suillus had significantly fewer type II fibers in mm. semitendinosus, gluteofemoralis, tibialis cranialis, plantaris, and the medial head of m. gastrocnemius compared to the other two species. In all three species, the majority of the muscle fibers in all functional muscle groups demonstrated low oxidative capacity which correlated with the expression of type II muscle fibers. It therefore seems likely that the number of type II muscle fibers in the hind limb muscles of the Bathyergidae species studied here is more influenced by either body size or digging strategy rather than being an adaptation for hind foot drumming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Sahd
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Narusa Doubell
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nigel C Bennett
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sanet H Kotzé
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
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11
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Marshall SK, Spainhower KB, Sinn BT, Diggins TP, Butcher MT. Hind Limb Bone Proportions Reveal Unexpected Morphofunctional Diversification in Xenarthrans. J MAMM EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-021-09537-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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