Cannabinoid mimics in chocolate utilized as an argument in court

The neuroprotective effects of cocoa flavanol and its influence on cognitive performance

Cocoa powder and chocolate contain numerous substances among which there is a quite large percentage of antioxidant molecules, mainly flavonoids, most abundantly found in the form of epicatechin. These substances display several beneficial actions on the brain. They enter the brain and induce widespread stimulation of brain perfusion. They also provoke angiogenesis, neurogenesis and changes in neuron morphology, mainly in regions involved in learning and memory. Epicatechin improves various aspects of cognition in animals and humans. Chocolate also induces positive effects on mood and is often consumed under emotional stress. In addition, flavonoids preserve cognitive abilities during ageing in rats, lower the risk for developing Alzheimer's disease and decrease the risk of stroke in humans. In addition to their beneficial effects on the vascular system and on cerebral blood flow, flavonoids interact with signalization cascades involving protein and lipid kinases that lead to the inhibition of neuronal death by apoptosis induced by neurotoxicants such as oxygen radicals, and promote neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity. The present review intends to review the data available on the effects of cocoa and chocolate on brain health and cognitive abilities.

Theobromine and the pharmacology of cocoa

The effects of theobromine in man are underresearched, possibly owing to the assumption that it is behaviourally inert. Toxicology research in animals may appear to provide alarming results, but these cannot be extrapolated to humans for a number of reasons. Domestic animals and animals used for racing competitions need to be guarded from chocolate and cocoa-containing foods, including foods containing cocoa husks. Research ought to include caffeine as a comparative agent, and underlying mechanisms need to be further explored. Of all constituents proposed to play a role in our liking for chocolate, caffeine is the most convincing, though a role for theobromine cannot be ruled out. Most other substances are unlikely to exude a psychopharmacological effect owing to extremely low concentrations or the inability to reach the blood-brain barrier, whilst chocolate craving and addiction need to be explained by means of a culturally determined ambivalence towards chocolate.

Pitfalls of toxicological analysis

Pitfalls are a permanent risk in all fields of forensic- and clinical-toxicological analysis and are not only concerned with immunoassays, although they are at present mostly discussed with regard to this subject. There are risks inherent in the field of preanalysis (e.g. the sampling, transportation, storage und treatment of the samples immediately prior to analysis). Furthermore, various pitfalls during measurement itself are to be avoided in connection with derivatization, choice of analysis parameters, memory-effects and many other sources of error. Another important section concerns the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interpretation of analytical results. Many toxicokinetic (e.g. enzyme induction) and toxicodynamic factors (e.g. tolerance effects) must be considered with special regard to plausibility controls (e.g. constellation, longitudinal, transversal and trend monitoring).