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Baer TD, Rice KA, Urbina E, Whitener DV, Dankel SJ. Assessing the effectiveness of Compare Assistant for improving intra-rater reliability of ultrasound-measured muscle thickness. J Med Ultrason (2001) 2024; 51:117-123. [PMID: 37804405 DOI: 10.1007/s10396-023-01367-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Muscle thickness measured via ultrasound is commonly used to assess muscle size. The purpose of this study was to determine if the reliability of this measurement will improve if using the Compare Assistant tool, and whether this depends on technician experience and the muscle being assessed. METHODS Individuals came to the laboratory for two visits each separated by 24 h. On day 1, two ultrasound images were taken on the individual's anterior upper arm (elbow flexors) and anterior lower leg (tibialis anterior) by two inexperienced and one experienced ultrasound technician. On day 2, three images were taken: (1) without looking at the previous images taken on day 1; (2) after re-examining the images taken on day 1, and (3) side-by-side with the images taken on day 1 via Compare Assistant. Bayes Factors (BF10) were used to provide evidence for the null (< 0.33) or alternative (> 3) hypotheses. RESULTS There was no rater by measurement technique interaction (upper body: BF10 = 0.04, lower body: BF10 = 0.138), nor was there a main effect of measurement technique (upper body: BF10 = 0.052, lower body: BF10 = 0.331), indicating that reliability measures were not improved for either the upper body (CV%, no look: 2.92 vs. Compare Assistant: 2.87) or lower body (CV%, no look: 1.81 vs. Compare Assistant: 1.34) as a result of using Compare Assistant. CONCLUSION The results of this study suggest that day-to-day reliability of muscle thickness measurement may be limited by random biological variability as opposed to technician error.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler D Baer
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, James Hall Room 1044, 201 Mullica Hill Rd, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Kevin A Rice
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, James Hall Room 1044, 201 Mullica Hill Rd, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Emely Urbina
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, James Hall Room 1044, 201 Mullica Hill Rd, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Dominic V Whitener
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, James Hall Room 1044, 201 Mullica Hill Rd, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, James Hall Room 1044, 201 Mullica Hill Rd, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA.
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Bürkle F, Doll J, Neide A, Gantz S, Tsitlakidis S, Fischer C. New perspectives for investigating muscular perfusion response after dietary supplement intake: an exploratory, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial in healthy young athletes using contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS). J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2022; 19:397-416. [PMID: 35859621 PMCID: PMC9291664 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2022.2097018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Various dietary supplements have been reported to enhance muscular perfusion in athletes practicing resistance training, especially through modulation of nitric oxide signaling. Objectives The aim of this study was therefore to investigate selected ‘NO-boosting’ supplements in a real-life setting i) to generate novel hypotheses and perfusion estimates for power calculation in view of a definitive trial and ii) to assess the feasibility of the study design with particular focus on the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) for perfusion quantification. Methods Thirty young male athletes (24 ± 4 years) regularly practicing resistance training were enrolled in this three-arm, placebo(PL)-controlled crossover trial with ingestion of two commercially available supplements: an amino acid combination (AA) (containing 3 g of L-arginine-hydrochloride and 8 g of L-citrulline-malate) and 300 mg of a specific green tea extract (GTE). After intake, CEUS examinations of the dominant biceps brachii muscle were performed under resting conditions and following standardized resistance exercising. Quantitative parameters of biceps perfusion (peak enhancement, PE; wash-in perfusion index, WiPI) and caliber were derived from corresponding CEUS video files. Additionally, subjective muscle pump was determined after exercise. Results For PE, WiPI, and biceps caliber, the standard deviation (SD) of the within-subject differences between PL, AA, and GTE was determined, thereby allowing future sample size calculations. No significant differences between PL, AA, and GTE were observed for biceps perfusion, caliber, or muscle pump. When comparing resting with post-exercise measurements, the increase in biceps perfusion significantly correlated with the caliber increase (PE: r = 0.266, p = 0.0113; WiPI: r = 0.269, p = 0.0105). Similarly, the biceps perfusion correlated with muscle pump in the post-exercise conditions (PE: r = 0.354, p = 0.0006; WiPI: r = 0.350, p = 0.0007). A high participant adherence was achieved, and the acquisition of good quality CEUS video files was feasible. No adverse events occurred. Conclusion Based on our novel examination protocol, CEUS seems to be feasible following higher-load resistance exercising and may be used as a new method for high-resolution perfusion quantification to investigate the effects of pre-exercise dietary supplementation on muscle perfusion and related muscle size dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Bürkle
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julian Doll
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Arndt Neide
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Simone Gantz
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefanos Tsitlakidis
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Fischer
- Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Ultrasound Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Cleary CJ, Herda TJ, Quick AM, Herda AA. Acute muscle swelling effects of a knee rehabilitation exercise performed with and without blood flow restriction. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278540. [PMID: 36548274 PMCID: PMC9778495 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study assessed the acute effect of adding blood flow restriction (BFR) to quad sets on muscle-cross sectional area (mCSA), muscle thickness (MT), echo intensity (EI), and subcutaneous fat-normalized EI (EINORM) of the superficial quadriceps muscles. Twelve males and 12 females (mean±SD; age (yrs): 21.4±2.9; stature (m): 1.76±0.1; body mass (kg): 77.7±2.9) performed 70 repetitions (one set of 30, three sets of 15 repetitions) of bodyweight quad sets separately on each leg, with or without BFR (CON) applied. Rating of perceived exertion was recorded following each set. Panoramic ultrasound images of the vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF) were captured prior to (PRE), immediately after (IMM-POST), 30- (30-POST), and 60-minutes after (60-POST) after exercise. Sex x condition x time repeated measures ANOVAs assessed differences at p<0.05 for each muscle and dependent variable separately. Although males had larger VM and VL mCSA and VL MT (p<0.05), there were no acute changes from PRE to IMM-POST (p>0.05). There was a 3-way interaction in VL mCSA (p = 0.025) which indicated BFR was greater than CON at IMM-POST by 7.6% (p = 0.019) for males only. Females had greater EI in the VM and VL than males (p<0.05), yet males had greater EINORM for each muscle (p>0.05) and EINORM did not change over time or treatment (p>0.05). The lack of changes in MT, EI, and EINORM indicate that unloaded quad sets do not provide a stimulus to promote fluid shifts or acute changes in muscle size with the exception of IMM-POST in the VL for males. Future research should attempt to elucidate the acute muscular responses of BFR application for lightly loaded rehabilitation exercises in the clinical populations for which they are prescribed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Cleary
- Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences, University of Kansas Edwards Campus, Overland Park, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Trent J. Herda
- Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences, University of Kansas Lawrence Campus, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Austin M. Quick
- Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences, University of Kansas Lawrence Campus, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Ashley A. Herda
- Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences, University of Kansas Edwards Campus, Overland Park, Kansas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hill EC, Housh TJ, Smith CM, Keller JL, Anders JPV, Schmidt RJ, Johnson GO. Acute changes in muscle thickness, edema, and blood flow are not different between low-load blood flow restriction and non-blood flow restriction. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2021; 41:452-460. [PMID: 34192417 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the acute changes in muscle swelling (as assessed by muscle thickness and echo intensity) and muscle blood flow associated with an acute bout of low-load blood flow restriction (LLBFR) and low-load non-blood flow restriction (LL) exercise. Twenty women (mean ± SD; 22 ± 2years) volunteered to perform an acute exercise bout that consisted of 75 (1 × 30, 3 × 15) isokinetic, reciprocal, concentric-only, submaximal (30% of peak torque), forearm flexion and extension muscle actions. Pretest, immediately after (posttest), and 5-min after (recovery) completing the 75 repetitions, muscle thickness and echo intensity were assessed from the biceps brachii and triceps brachii muscles and muscle blood flow was assessed from the brachial artery. There were no between group differences for any of the dependent variables, but there were significant simple and main effects for muscle and time. Biceps and triceps brachii muscle thickness increased from pretest (2.13 ± 0.39 cm and 1.88 ± 0.40 cm, respectively) to posttest (2.58 ± 0.49 cm and 2.17 ± 0.43 cm, respectively) for both muscles and remained elevated for the biceps brachii (2.53 ± 0.43 cm), but partially returned to pretest levels for the triceps brachii (2.06 ± 0.41 cm). Echo intensity and muscle blood flow increased from pretest (98.0 ± 13.6 Au and 94.5 ± 31.6 ml min-1 , respectively) to posttest (109.2 ± 16.9 Au and 312.2 ± 106.5 ml min-1 , respectively) and pretest to recovery (110.1 ± 18.3 Au and 206.7 ± 92.9 ml min-1 , respectively) and remained elevated for echo intensity, but partially returned to pretest levels for muscle blood flow. The findings of the present study indicated that LLBFR and LL elicited comparable acute responses as a result of reciprocal, concentric-only, forearm flexion and extension muscle actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan C Hill
- School of Kinesiology & Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.,Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Terry J Housh
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Cory M Smith
- College of Health Sciences, Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
| | - Joshua L Keller
- College of Education and Professional Studies, Department of Health, Kinesiology and Sport, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
| | - John Paul V Anders
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Richard J Schmidt
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Glen O Johnson
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Patterns of responses and time-course of changes in muscle size and strength during low-load blood flow restriction resistance training in women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1473-1485. [PMID: 33638690 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04627-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this investigation was to examine the individual and composite patterns of responses and time-course of changes in muscle size, strength, and edema throughout a 4 week low-load blood flow restriction (LLBFR) resistance training intervention. METHODS Twenty recreationally active women (mean ± SD; 23 ± 3 years) participated in this investigation and were randomly assigned to 4 weeks (3/week) of LLBFR (n = 10) or control (n = 10) group. Resistance training consisted of 75 reciprocal isokinetic forearm flexion-extension muscle actions performed at 30% of peak torque. Strength and ultrasound-based assessments were determined at each training session. RESULTS There were quadratic increases for composite muscle thickness (R2 = 0.998), concentric peak torque (R2 = 0.962), and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque (R2 = 0.980) data for the LLBFR group. For muscle thickness, seven of ten subjects exceeded the minimal difference (MD) of 0.16 cm during the very early phase (laboratory visits 1-7) of the intervention compared to three of ten subjects that exceeded MD for either concentric peak torque (3.7 Nm) or MVIC (2.2 Nm) during this same time period. There was a linear increase for composite echo intensity (r2 = 0.563) as a result of LLBFR resistance training, but eight of ten subjects never exceeded the MD of 14.2 Au. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggested that the increases in muscle thickness for the LLBFR group were not associated with edema and changes in echo intensity should be examined on a subject-by-subject basis. Furthermore, LLBFR forearm flexion-extension resistance training elicited real increases in muscle size during the very early phase of training that occurred prior to real increases in muscle strength.
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Hill EC, Housh TJ, Smith CM, Keller JL, Schmidt RJ, Johnson GO. High- vs. Low-Intensity Fatiguing Eccentric Exercise on Muscle Thickness, Strength, and Blood Flow. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:33-40. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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de Camargo JBB, Braz TV, Batista DR, Germano MD, Brigatto FA, Lopes CR. Dissociated Time Course of Indirect Markers of Muscle Damage Recovery Between Single-Joint and Multi-joint Exercises in Resistance-Trained Men. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 36:2089-2093. [PMID: 33394892 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT de Camargo, JBB, Braz, TV, Batista, DR, Germano, MD, Brigatto, FA, and Lopes, CR. Dissociated time course of indirect markers of muscle damage recovery between single-joint and multi-joint exercises in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-This study compared the time course of indirect markers of muscle damage after multi-joint and single-joint exercises. Ten resistance-trained men (years: 26.9 ± 3.0; total body mass: 83.2 ± 13.8 kg; height: 176 ± 7.0 cm; resistance training [RT] experience: 5.5 ± 2.4 years; RT frequency: 5.3 ± 0.7 sessions; relative squat 1 repetition maximum: 1.4 ± 0.3) performed, in a random order, 5 sets of 8 repetition maximum of the back squat (BS) and knee extension (KE) exercises. Rectus femoris muscle thickness (MTRF), leg circumference (LC), and muscle soreness (MS) were recorded at baseline (pre), 0, 12, 24, and 36 hours after each exercise protocol. There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in dependent variables at every time point after both the multi-joint and single-joint exercise sessions. However, MTRF and LC were greater at 0 and 36 hours, and MS was greater at 24 and 36 hours after BS when compared with KE (all p < 0.05). This study shows that resistance-trained individuals can experience significant higher levels of indirect markers of muscle damage when performing a multi-joint lower-limb exercise compared with a single one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio Benvenutti Bueno de Camargo
- Methodist University of Piracicaba, Human Performance Research Laboratory, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil; Anhanguera University Center, Leme, São Paulo, Brazil; and Adventist Faculty of Hortolândia, Hortolândia, São Paulo, Brazil
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Kuehne TE, Kataoka R, Yitzchaki N, Zhu WG, Vasenina E, Buckner SL. An examination of changes in muscle thickness, isometric strength and body water throughout the menstrual cycle. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2020; 41:165-172. [PMID: 33166047 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in muscle size and strength throughout the menstrual cycle in females and to compare these values to a control group of time-matched males. METHODS 12 males and 16 females visited the laboratory on four occasions. Measures of muscle thickness (MTH), isometric strength and body water were taken during the menstrual phase, ovulation phase and luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Males scheduled their visits based on a mock menstrual cycle. In addition, participants were asked to complete 4 sets of biceps curls to volitional failure in one arm to examine swelling during each visit. RESULTS For MTH there was no interaction (p = .73); however, there was a main effect for sex with males having higher MTH values compared to females [4.07 (0.67) versus. 2.73 (0.42) cm, (p < .001)] at all time points. For changes in MTH (swelling) there was no interaction (p = .28). However, there was a main effect for sex, with males demonstrating greater changes in MTH compared to females [0.53(0.11) versus. 0.40 (0.10) cm, (p < .001)]. Similarly, for total body water, there was no interaction (p = .66). However, males had greater total body water compared to females [49.6 (6.8) versus. 32.3(3.9) kg, p < .001)] at all time points. Finally, for isometric strength, there was no interaction (p = .23). However, there was a main effect for sex. Males had higher isometric strength values compared to females [285 (42) versus. 156(36) N (p < .001)]. CONCLUSIONS Phase of the menstrual cycle does not appear to influence MTH, isometric strength or total body water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tayla E Kuehne
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ryo Kataoka
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Noam Yitzchaki
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Wenyuan G Zhu
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ecaterina Vasenina
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Mouser JG, Dankel SJ, Mattocks KT, Bell ZW, Abe T, Loenneke JP. The Basics of Training for Muscle Size and Strength: A Brief Review on the Theory. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:645-653. [PMID: 31652235 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The periodization of resistance exercise is often touted as the most effective strategy for optimizing muscle size and strength adaptations. This narrative persists despite a lack of experimental evidence to demonstrate its superiority. In addition, the general adaptation syndrome, which provides the theoretical framework underlying periodization, does not appear to provide a strong physiological rationale that periodization is necessary. Hans Selye conducted a series of rodent studies which used toxic stressors to facilitate the development of the general adaptation syndrome. To our knowledge, normal exercise in humans has never been shown to produce a general adaptation syndrome. We question whether there is any physiological rationale that a periodized training approach would facilitate greater adaptations compared with nonperiodized approaches employing progressive overload. The purpose of this article is to briefly review currently debated topics within strength and conditioning and provide some practical insight regarding the implications these reevaluations of the literature may have for resistance exercise and periodization. In addition, we provide some suggestions for the continued advancement within the field of strength and conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Matthew B Jessee
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - J Grant Mouser
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Troy University, Troy, AL
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ
| | | | - Zachary W Bell
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - Takashi Abe
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - Jeremy P Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
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Yitzchaki N, Zhu WG, Kuehne TE, Vasenina E, Dankel SJ, Buckner SL. An examination of changes in skeletal muscle thickness, echo intensity, strength and soreness following resistance exercise. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2020; 40:238-244. [PMID: 32187417 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
It is suggested that changes in echo intensity (EI) measured through ultrasound can detect muscle swelling. However, changes in EI have never been examined relative to a non-exercise control following naïve exposure to exercise. PURPOSE Examine the changes in muscle thickness (MT), EI and isometric strength (ISO) before, immediately after, and 24, and 48 hr following biceps curls. METHODS Twenty-seven non-resistance-trained individuals visited the laboratory four times. During visit 1, paperwork was completed and strength was measured. During visit 2, MT and ISO were measured before four sets of curls. Additional measures were taken immediately after exercise, as well as 24 and 48 hr post. Results are displayed as means (SD). RESULTS For MT, there was an interaction (p < .001). For the experimental condition, MT increased from pre [2.88(0.64) cm] to post [3.27(0.67) cm] and remained elevated 48 hr post. There were no changes for MT in the control arm. In the experimental arm, EI increased from pre [22.9(9.6) AU] to post [29.1(12.3) AU] exercise and returned to baseline by 24 hr. For the control condition, EI was different between pre [24.8(10.2) AU] and 48 hr [21.5(10.7) AU]. The change in EI in the experimental condition was greater than the control condition immediately post (p = .039) and at 48 hr (p = .016). For ISO, there was an interaction (p < .001). In the experimental condition, ISO decreased from pre [40.6(14.7) Nm)] to post [24.8(9.4) Nm] and remained depressed. CONCLUSIONS Exercise produced a swelling response, which was elevated 48 hr post. Despite a sustained increase in MT, EI was only elevated immediately post exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noam Yitzchaki
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Wenyuan G Zhu
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Tayla E Kuehne
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ecaterina Vasenina
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Science, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, USA
| | - Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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Kuehne TE, Yitzchaki N, Jessee MB, Graves BS, Buckner SL. A comparison of acute changes in muscle thickness between A-mode and B-mode ultrasound. Physiol Meas 2019; 40:115004. [PMID: 31631884 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ab4f14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to compare acute changes in muscle thickness (MT) between A-mode and B-mode ultrasound before and after four sets of biceps curls. APPROACH Participants visited the laboratory on two separate occasions. The first visit consisted of paperwork and one repetition maximum (1RM) strength assessment. During the second visit, participants performed four sets of biceps curls to volitional failure using an exercise load equal to 70% of 1RM or a time-matched non-exercise control. MT measurements were taken before and immediately after exercise. MT measures were taken using both A-mode and B-mode ultrasound. MAIN RESULTS Results are displayed as mean (SD). A total of 49 resistance-trained men (n = 24) and women (n = 25) completed the study. There was no group (experimental versus control) by mode (A-mode versus B-mode) by time interaction (p = 0.442). However, there was a group (experimental versus control) × time (pre versus post) interaction (p < 0.001). Muscle thickness increased from pre (3.61 (0.86) cm) to post exercise (4.06 (0.92) cm) in the experimental group (p < 0.001). However, there was no change from pre (3.46 (0.78) cm) to post (3.48 (0.78) cm) in the time-matched control group (p = 0.237). There was a main effect for ultrasound mode (A-mode versus B-mode) (p < 0.001). Muscle thickness values as measured by A-mode ultrasound were lower than those measured by B-mode ultrasound pre (A-mode = 3.43 (0.79) cm versus B-mode = 3.63 (0.84) cm) and post (A-mode = 3.67 (0.87) cm versus B-mode = 3.83 (0.91) cm) intervention. SIGNIFICANCE MT measurements taken using A-mode ultrasound are lower than those of B-mode ultrasound. Despite this difference, it appears A-mode can detect similar acute changes in MT following resistance exercise when compared to B-mode ultrasound. These results suggest that A-mode ultrasound can serve as a useful tool when examining acute changes in MT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tayla E Kuehne
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States of America
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Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Dankel SJ, Mattocks KT, Mouser JG, Bell ZW, Abe T, Bentley JP, Loenneke JP. Blood flow restriction does not augment low force contractions taken to or near task failure. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 20:650-659. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1664640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel L. Buckner
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Matthew B. Jessee
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Scott J. Dankel
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, USA
| | - Kevin T. Mattocks
- Department of Exercise Science, Lindenwood University, Belleville, IL, USA
| | - J. Grant Mouser
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Troy University, Troy, AL, USA
| | - Zachary W. Bell
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Takashi Abe
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - John P. Bentley
- Department of Pharmacy Administration, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Jeremy P. Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
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13
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Eccentric and concentric blood flow restriction resistance training on indices of delayed onset muscle soreness in untrained women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:2363-2373. [PMID: 31473805 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04220-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Unaccustomed exercise can result in delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), particularly as a result of the eccentric phase of the muscle contraction. Resistance training combined with venous blood flow restriction (vBFR) may attenuate DOMS, but the available information in this regard is conflicting. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of low-load eccentric vBFR (Ecc-vBFR) and concentric vBFR (Con-vBFR) resistance training on indices of DOMS. METHODS Twenty-five previously untrained women completed seven days of either Ecc-vBFR (n = 12) or Con-vBFR (n = 13) forearm flexion resistance training at a velocity of 120° s-1 on an isokinetic dynamometer. The Ecc-vBFR group used a training load that corresponded to 30% of eccentric peak torque and the Con-vBFR group used a training load that corresponded to 30% of concentric peak torque. RESULTS There were no differences between Ecc-vBFR and Con-vBFR at any of the seven training sessions on any of the indices of DOMS. There were no decreases in the maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque which increased at days 6 and 7. Similarly, there were no changes in perceived muscle soreness, pain pressure threshold, elbow joint angle, or edema (as assessed by echo intensity via ultrasound) across the seven training sessions. CONCLUSIONS The Ecc-vBFR and Con-vBFR low-load training protocols were not associated with DOMS and there were no differences between protocols when performed using the same relative training intensity. These findings suggested that both unaccustomed eccentric and concentric low-load training did not result in DOMS when combined with vBFR.
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14
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Yitzchaki N, Kuehne TE, Mouser JG, Buckner SL. Can changes in echo intensity be used to detect the presence of acute muscle swelling? Physiol Meas 2019; 40:045002. [PMID: 30897561 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ab122a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to examine acute changes in muscle thickness (MTH) and echo-intensity (EI), following four sets of biceps curls, when it is known that the change in MTH is due entirely to swelling. APPROACH Forty-nine resistance-trained men and women participated in this study. Individuals in the experimental group (n = 23) visited the lab on two separate occasions. During the first visit, paperwork and one repetition maximum (1RM) strength were measured. During the second visit (3-5 d after visit 1), individuals performed four sets of biceps curls to failure using 70% of their 1RM. MTH and EI measurements were taken before and immediately following exercise using B-mode ultrasound. The ultrasound probe was equipped with a level to minimize the influence of probe tilt on the EI measurement. A time-matched control group (n = 26) was included to account for measurement error for both MTH and EI. Results are presented as means (95% CI). MAIN RESULTS For MTH there was a group (Experimental versus Control) by time (Pre-Post) interaction (p < 0.001). MTH increased in the experimental group (mean value change = 0.44 (0.33-0.54) cm), but not in the control group (mean value change = -0.015 (-0.03-0.01) cm). For EI, there was no group by time interaction (p =.074). In addition, there were no main effects for group (p = 0.254) or time (p = 0.314). The mean difference in the change in EI between groups was -2.99 (-6.25-3.03) arbitrary units. SIGNIFICANCE EI cannot be used to detect exercise induced changes in muscle thickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noam Yitzchaki
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States of America
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15
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Muddle TW, Magrini MA, Colquhoun RJ, Luera MJ, Tomko PM, Jenkins ND. Impact of Fatiguing, Submaximal High- vs. Low-Torque Isometric Exercise on Acute Muscle Swelling, and Echo Intensity in Resistance-Trained Men. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33:1007-1019. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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16
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Hornsby WG, Gentles JA, Haff GG, Stone MH, Buckner SL, Dankel SJ, Bell ZW, Abe T, Loenneke JP. What is the Impact of Muscle Hypertrophy on Strength and Sport Performance? Strength Cond J 2018. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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17
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Interpreting Adaptation to Concurrent Compared with Single-Mode Exercise Training: Some Methodological Considerations. Sports Med 2018; 48:289-297. [PMID: 29127601 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0812-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Incorporating both endurance and resistance training into an exercise regime is termed concurrent training. While there is evidence that concurrent training can attenuate resistance training-induced improvements in maximal strength and muscle hypertrophy, research findings are often equivocal, with some suggesting short-term concurrent training may instead further enhance muscle hypertrophy versus resistance training alone. These observations have questioned the validity of the purported 'interference effect' on muscle hypertrophy with concurrent versus single-mode resistance training. This article aims to highlight some methodological considerations when interpreting the concurrent training literature, and, in particular, the degree of changes in strength and muscle hypertrophy observed with concurrent versus single-mode resistance training. Individual training status clearly influences the relative magnitude and specificity of both training adaptation and post-exercise molecular responses in skeletal muscle. The training status of participants is therefore likely a key modulator of the degree of adaptation and interference seen with concurrent training interventions. The divergent magnitudes of strength gain versus muscle hypertrophy induced by resistance training also suggests most concurrent training studies are likely to observe more substantial changes in (and in turn, any potential interference to) strength compared with muscle hypertrophy. Both the specificity and sensitivity of measures used to assess training-induced changes in strength and muscle hypertrophy also likely influence the interpretation of concurrent training outcomes. Finally, the relative importance of any modulation of hypertrophic versus strength adaptation with concurrent training should be considered in context with the relevance of training-induced changes in these variables for enhancing athletic performance and/or functional capacity. Taken together, these observations suggest that aside from various training-related factors, additional non-training-related variables, including participant training status and the measures used to assess changes in strength and muscle hypertrophy, are important considerations when interpreting the outcomes of concurrent training interventions.
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18
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Jessee MB, Buckner SL, Mouser JG, Mattocks KT, Dankel SJ, Abe T, Bell ZW, Bentley JP, Loenneke JP. Muscle Adaptations to High-Load Training and Very Low-Load Training With and Without Blood Flow Restriction. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1448. [PMID: 30386254 PMCID: PMC6198179 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
An inability to lift loads great enough to disrupt muscular blood flow may impair the ability to fatigue muscles, compromising the hypertrophic response. It is unknown what level of blood flow restriction (BFR) pressure, if any, is necessary to reach failure at very low-loads [i.e., 15% one-repetition maximum (1RM)]. The purpose of this study was to investigate muscular adaptations following resistance training with a very low-load alone (15/0), with moderate BFR (15/40), or with high BFR (15/80), and compare them to traditional high-load (70/0) resistance training. Using a within/between subject design, healthy young participants (n = 40) performed four sets of unilateral knee extension to failure (up to 90 repetitions/set), twice per week for 8 weeks. Data presented as mean change (95% CI). There was a condition by time interaction for 1RM (p < 0.001), which increased for 70/0 [3.15 (2.04,4.25) kg] only. A condition by time interaction (p = 0.028) revealed greater changes in endurance for 15/80 [6 (4,8) repetitions] compared to 15/0 [4 (2,6) repetitions] and 70/0 [4 (2,5) repetitions]. There was a main effect of time for isometric MVC [change = 10.51 (3.87,17.16) Nm, p = 0.002] and isokinetic MVC at 180°/s [change = 8.61 (5.54,11.68) Nm, p < 0.001], however there was no change in isokinetic MVC at 60°/s [2.45 (−1.84,6.74) Nm, p = 0.261]. Anterior and lateral muscle thickness was assessed at 30, 40, 50, and 60% of the upper leg. There was no condition by time interaction for muscle thickness sites (all p ≥ 0.313). There was a main effect of time for all sites, with increases over time (all p < 0.001). With the exception of the 30% lateral site (p = 0.059) there was also a main effect of condition (all p < 0.001). Generally, 70/0 was greater. Average weekly volume increased for all conditions across the 8 weeks, and was greatest for 70/0 followed by 15/0, 15/40, then 15/80. With the exception of 1RM, changes in strength and muscle size were similar regardless of load or restriction. The workload required to elicit these changes lowered with increased BFR pressure. These findings may be pertinent to rehabilitative settings, future research, and program design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Jessee
- School of Kinesiology, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Samuel L Buckner
- Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - J Grant Mouser
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Troy University, Troy, AL, United States
| | - Kevin T Mattocks
- Department of Exercise Science, Lindenwood University - Belleville, Belleville, IL, United States
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, United States
| | - Takashi Abe
- Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, United States
| | - Zachary W Bell
- Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, United States
| | - John P Bentley
- Department of Pharmacy Administration, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, United States
| | - Jeremy P Loenneke
- Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, United States
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19
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Tomko PM, Muddle TW, Magrini MA, Colquhoun RJ, Luera MJ, Jenkins ND. Reliability and differences in quadriceps femoris muscle morphology using ultrasonography: The effects of body position and rest time. ULTRASOUND : JOURNAL OF THE BRITISH MEDICAL ULTRASOUND SOCIETY 2018; 26:214-221. [PMID: 30479636 DOI: 10.1177/1742271x18780127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Introduction The purpose of this investigation was to: (1) to determine the reliability of rectus femoris muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity obtained using panoramic ultrasound imaging during seated and supine lying positions before and after a 5-minute rest period and (2) to determine the influence of body position and rest period on the magnitude of rectus femoris muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity measurements. Methods A total of 23 males and females (age = 21.5 ± 1.9 years) visited the laboratory on two separate occasions. During each visit, panoramic ultrasound images of the rectus femoris were obtained in both a seated and a supine position before (T1) and after a 5-minute (T2) rest period to quantify any potential changes in either muscle cross-sectional area and/or echo intensity. Results None of the muscle cross-sectional area or echo intensity measurements exhibited systematic variability, and the ICCs were 0.98-0.99 and 0.88-0.91, and the coefficients of variation were ≤ 3.9% and ≤ 8.2% for muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity, respectively. Our results indicated that muscle cross-sectional area was greater in the seated than supine position, whereas echo intensity was greater in the supine position. Further, echo intensity increased in the seated position from T1 to T2. Conclusion Both rectus femoris muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity may be reliably measured in either a seated or supine lying position before or after a 5-minute rest period. Aside from echo intensity in the seated position, rest period had no influence on the magnitude of muscle cross-sectional area or echo intensity. Comparison of muscle cross-sectional area values that are obtained in different body positions is ill-advised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Tomko
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, USA
| | - Tyler Wd Muddle
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, USA
| | - Mitchel A Magrini
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, USA
| | - Ryan J Colquhoun
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, USA
| | - Micheal J Luera
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, USA
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Damas F, Libardi CA, Ugrinowitsch C. The development of skeletal muscle hypertrophy through resistance training: the role of muscle damage and muscle protein synthesis. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 118:485-500. [PMID: 29282529 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3792-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Resistance training (RT)-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy is a highly intricate process. Despite substantial advances, we are far from understanding exactly how muscle hypertrophy develops during RT. The aim of the present review is to discuss new insights related to the role of skeletal muscle damage and muscle protein synthesis (MPS) in mediating RT-induced hypertrophy. Specifically, the thesis that in the early phase of RT (≤ 4 previous RT sessions) increases in muscle cross-sectional area are mostly attributable to muscle damage-induced muscle swelling; then (after ~ 10 sessions), a modest magnitude of muscle hypertrophy ensues; but only during a latter phase of RT (after ~ 18 sessions) is true muscle hypertrophy observed. We argue that the initial increases in MPS post-RT are likely directed to muscle repair and remodelling due to damage, and do not correlate with eventual muscle hypertrophy induced by several RT weeks. Increases in MPS post-RT session only contribute to muscle hypertrophy after a progressive attenuation of muscle damage, and even more significantly when damage is minimal. Furthermore, RT protocols that do not promote significant muscle damage still induce similar muscle hypertrophy and strength gains compared to conditions that do promote initial muscle damage. Thus, we conclude that muscle damage is not the process that mediates or potentiates RT-induced muscle hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Damas
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 65, São Paulo, SP, 05508-030, Brazil. .,Laboratory of Neuromuscular Adaptations to Resistance Training-MUSCULAB, Department of Physical Education, Federal University of São Carlos, Rod. Washington Luiz, km 235-SP310, São Carlos, SP, 13565-905, Brazil.
| | - Cleiton A Libardi
- Laboratory of Neuromuscular Adaptations to Resistance Training-MUSCULAB, Department of Physical Education, Federal University of São Carlos, Rod. Washington Luiz, km 235-SP310, São Carlos, SP, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Carlos Ugrinowitsch
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 65, São Paulo, SP, 05508-030, Brazil
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21
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Counts BR, Buckner SL, Mouser JG, Dankel SJ, Jessee MB, Mattocks KT, Loenneke JP. Muscle growth: To infinity and beyond? Muscle Nerve 2017; 56:1022-1030. [DOI: 10.1002/mus.25696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brittany R. Counts
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Department of Exercise Science; University of South Carolina; Columbia South Carolina USA
| | - Samuel L. Buckner
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
| | - J. Grant Mouser
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
| | - Scott J. Dankel
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
| | - Matthew B. Jessee
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
| | - Kevin T. Mattocks
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
| | - Jeremy P. Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory; The University of Mississippi; PO Box 1848, University Mississippi 38677 USA
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