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Shigeta M, Aoi W, Morita C, Soga K, Inoue R, Fukushima Y, Kobayashi Y, Kuwahata M. Matcha green tea beverage moderates fatigue and supports resistance training-induced adaptation. Nutr J 2023; 22:32. [PMID: 37403052 DOI: 10.1186/s12937-023-00859-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Resistance training adaptively increases muscle strength and mass, contributing to athletic performance and health promotion. Dietary intervention with natural foods provides nutrients that help accelerate muscle adaptation to training. Matcha green tea contains several bioactive factors such as antioxidants, amino acids, and dietary fibers; however, its effect on muscle adaptation is unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of matcha beverage intake on muscle adaptation to resistance training. METHODS Healthy, untrained men were randomized into placebo and matcha groups. Participants consumed either a matcha beverage containing 1.5 g of matcha green tea powder or a placebo beverage twice a day and engaged in resistance training programs for 8 (trial 1) or 12 weeks (trial 2). RESULTS In trial 1, maximum leg strength after training tended to increase more in the matcha group than that in the placebo group. In the matcha group, subjective fatigue after exercise at 1 week of training was lower than that in the placebo group. Gut microbe analysis showed that the abundance of five genera changed after matcha intake. The change in Ruminococcus, Butyricimonas, and Oscillospira compositions positively correlated with the change in maximum strength. In trial 2, the change in skeletal muscle mass in response to training was larger in the matcha group. In addition, the salivary cortisol level was lower in the matcha group than that in the placebo group. CONCLUSION Daily intake of matcha green tea beverages may help in muscle adaptation to training, with modulations in stress and fatigue responses and microbiota composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuho Shigeta
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
| | - Wataru Aoi
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan.
| | - Chiharu Morita
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
| | - Kurumi Soga
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
| | - Ryo Inoue
- Laboratory of Animal Science, Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Setsunan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoichi Fukushima
- Department of Health Science, Faculty of Sports and Health Science, Daito Bunka University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Yukiko Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
| | - Masashi Kuwahata
- Laboratory of Nutrition Science, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Hangi-Cho Shimogamo, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
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Exogenous Ketone Supplements in Athletic Contexts: Past, Present, and Future. Sports Med 2022; 52:25-67. [PMID: 36214993 PMCID: PMC9734240 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01756-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The ketone bodies acetoacetate (AcAc) and β-hydroxybutyrate (βHB) have pleiotropic effects in multiple organs including brain, heart, and skeletal muscle by serving as an alternative substrate for energy provision, and by modulating inflammation, oxidative stress, catabolic processes, and gene expression. Of particular relevance to athletes are the metabolic actions of ketone bodies to alter substrate utilisation through attenuating glucose utilisation in peripheral tissues, anti-lipolytic effects on adipose tissue, and attenuation of proteolysis in skeletal muscle. There has been long-standing interest in the development of ingestible forms of ketone bodies that has recently resulted in the commercial availability of exogenous ketone supplements (EKS). These supplements in the form of ketone salts and ketone esters, in addition to ketogenic compounds such as 1,3-butanediol and medium chain triglycerides, facilitate an acute transient increase in circulating AcAc and βHB concentrations, which has been termed 'acute nutritional ketosis' or 'intermittent exogenous ketosis'. Some studies have suggested beneficial effects of EKS to endurance performance, recovery, and overreaching, although many studies have failed to observe benefits of acute nutritional ketosis on performance or recovery. The present review explores the rationale and historical development of EKS, the mechanistic basis for their proposed effects, both positive and negative, and evidence to date for their effects on exercise performance and recovery outcomes before concluding with a discussion of methodological considerations and future directions in this field.
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König D, Kohl J, Jerger S, Centner C. Potential Relevance of Bioactive Peptides in Sports Nutrition. Nutrients 2021; 13:3997. [PMID: 34836255 PMCID: PMC8622853 DOI: 10.3390/nu13113997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioactive peptides are physiologically active peptides mostly derived from proteins following gastrointestinal digestion, fermentation or hydrolysis by proteolytic enzymes. It has been shown that bioactive peptides can be resorbed in their intact form and have repeatedly been shown to have a positive effect on health-related parameters such as hypertension, dyslipoproteinemia, inflammation and oxidative stress. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence that biologically active peptides could also play an important role in sports nutrition. Current studies have shown that bioactive peptides could have a positive impact on changes in body composition and muscular performance, reduce muscle damage following exercise and induce beneficial adaptions within the connective tissue. In the following overview, potential mechanisms as well as possible limitations regarding the sports-related effect of bioactive peptides and their potential mechanisms are presented and discussed. In addition, practical applications will be discussed on how bioactive peptides can be integrated into a nutritional approach in sports to enhance athletic performance as well as prevent injuries and improve the rehabilitation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel König
- Centre for Sports Science and University Sports, Institute for Nutrition, Exercise and Health, University of Vienna, Auf der Schmelz, 61150 Vienna, Austria
- Department for Nutritional Science, Institute for Nutrition, Exercise and Health, University of Vienna, 61150 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jan Kohl
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, 79102 Freiburg, Germany; (J.K.); (S.J.); (C.C.)
| | - Simon Jerger
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, 79102 Freiburg, Germany; (J.K.); (S.J.); (C.C.)
| | - Christoph Centner
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, 79102 Freiburg, Germany; (J.K.); (S.J.); (C.C.)
- Praxisklinik Rennbahn, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
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Morgan PT, Breen L. The role of protein hydrolysates for exercise-induced skeletal muscle recovery and adaptation: a current perspective. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2021; 18:44. [PMID: 33882976 PMCID: PMC8061049 DOI: 10.1186/s12986-021-00574-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein supplement industry is expanding rapidly and estimated to have a multi-billion market worth. Recent research has centred on understanding how the manufacturing processes of protein supplements may impact muscle recovery and remodeling. The hydrolysed forms of protein undergo a further heating extraction process during production which may contribute to amino acids (AA) appearing in circulation at a slightly quicker rate, or greater amplitude, than the intact form. Whilst the relative significance of the rate of aminoacidemia to muscle protein synthesis is debated, it has been suggested that protein hydrolysates, potentially through the more rapid delivery and higher proportion of di-, tri- and smaller oligo-peptides into circulation, are superior to intact non-hydrolysed proteins and free AAs in promoting skeletal muscle protein remodeling and recovery. However, despite these claims, there is currently insufficient evidence to support superior muscle anabolic properties compared with intact non-hydrolysed proteins and/or free AA controls. Further research is warranted with appropriate protein controls, particularly in populations consuming insufficient amounts of protein, to support and/or refute an important muscle anabolic role of protein hydrolysates. The primary purpose of this review is to provide the reader with a current perspective on the potential anabolic effects of protein hydrolysates in individuals wishing to optimise recovery from, and maximise adaptation to, exercise training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul T Morgan
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Leigh Breen
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
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Murphy CH, Flanagan EM, De Vito G, Susta D, Mitchelson KAJ, de Marco Castro E, Senden JMG, Goessens JPB, Mikłosz A, Chabowski A, Segurado R, Corish CA, McCarthy SN, Egan B, van Loon LJC, Roche HM. Does supplementation with leucine-enriched protein alone and in combination with fish-oil-derived n-3 PUFA affect muscle mass, strength, physical performance, and muscle protein synthesis in well-nourished older adults? A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2021; 113:1411-1427. [PMID: 33871558 PMCID: PMC8168361 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-enriched protein (LEU-PRO) and long-chain (LC) n-3 (ω-3) PUFAs have each been proposed to improve muscle mass and function in older adults, whereas their combination may be more effective than either alone. OBJECTIVE The impact of LEU-PRO supplementation alone and combined with LC n-3 PUFAs on appendicular lean mass, strength, physical performance and myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) was investigated in older adults at risk of sarcopenia. METHODS This 24-wk, 3-arm parallel, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted in 107 men and women aged ≥65 y with low muscle mass and/or strength. Twice daily, participants consumed a supplement containing either LEU-PRO (3 g leucine, 10 g protein; n = 38), LEU-PRO plus LC n-3 PUFAs (0.8 g EPA, 1.1 g DHA; LEU-PRO+n-3; n = 38), or an isoenergetic control (CON; n = 31). Appendicular lean mass, handgrip strength, leg strength, physical performance, and circulating metabolic and renal function markers were measured pre-, mid-, and postintervention. Integrated rates of MyoPS were assessed in a subcohort (n = 28). RESULTS Neither LEU-PRO nor LEU-PRO+n-3 supplementation affected appendicular lean mass, handgrip strength, knee extension strength, physical performance or MyoPS. However, isometric knee flexion peak torque (treatment effect: -7.1 Nm; 95% CI: -12.5, -1.8 Nm; P < 0.01) was lower postsupplementation in LEU-PRO+n-3 compared with CON. Serum triacylglycerol and total adiponectin concentrations were lower, and HOMA-IR was higher, in LEU-PRO+n-3 compared with CON postsupplementation (all P < 0.05). Estimated glomerular filtration rate was higher and cystatin c was lower in LEU-PRO and LEU-PRO+n-3 postsupplementation compared with CON (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Contrary to our hypothesis, we did not observe a beneficial effect of LEU-PRO supplementation alone or combined with LC n-3 PUFA supplementation on appendicular lean mass, strength, physical performance or MyoPS in older adults at risk of sarcopenia. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03429491.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caoileann H Murphy
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ellen M Flanagan
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Giuseppe De Vito
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Davide Susta
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland,Department of Normal Physiology, IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kathleen A J Mitchelson
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Elena de Marco Castro
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Joan M G Senden
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Joy P B Goessens
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Agnieszka Mikłosz
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Adrian Chabowski
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Ricardo Segurado
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland,UCD Centre for Support and Training in Analysis and Research (CSTAR), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Clare A Corish
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Brendan Egan
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Luc J C van Loon
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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MARGOLIS LEEM, ALLEN JILLIANT, HATCH-MCCHESNEY ADRIENNE, PASIAKOS STEFANM. Coingestion of Carbohydrate and Protein on Muscle Glycogen Synthesis after Exercise: A Meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53:384-393. [PMID: 32826640 PMCID: PMC7803445 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE Evidence suggests that carbohydrate and protein (CHO-PRO) ingestion after exercise enhances muscle glycogen repletion to a greater extent than carbohydrate (CHO) alone. However, there is no consensus at this point, and results across studies are mixed, which may be attributable to differences in energy content and carbohydrate intake relative to body mass consumed after exercise. The purpose of this study was determine the overall effects of CHO-PRO and the independent effects of energy and relative carbohydrate content of CHO-PRO supplementation on postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis compared with CHO alone. METHODS Meta-analysis was conducted on crossover studies assessing the influence of CHO-PRO compared with CHO alone on postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis. Studies were identified in a systematic review from PubMed and Cochrane Library databases. Data are presented as effect size (95% confidence interval [CI]) using Hedges' g. Subgroup analyses were conducted to evaluate effects of isocaloric and nonisocaloric energy content and dichotomized by median relative carbohydrate (high, ≥0.8 g·kg-1⋅h-1; low, <0.8 g·kg-1⋅h-1) content on glycogen synthesis. RESULTS Twenty studies were included in the analysis. CHO-PRO had no overall effect on glycogen synthesis (0.13, 95% CI = -0.04 to 0.29) compared with CHO. Subgroup analysis found that CHO-PRO had a positive effect (0.26, 95% CI = 0.04-0.49) on glycogen synthesis when the combined intervention provided more energy than CHO. Glycogen synthesis was not significant (-0.05, 95% CI = -0.23 to 0.13) in CHO-PRO compared with CON when matched for energy content. There was no statistical difference of CHO-PRO on glycogen synthesis in high (0.07, 95% CI = -0.11 to 0.22) or low (0.21, 95% CI = -0.08 to 0.50) carbohydrate content compared with CHO. CONCLUSION Glycogen synthesis rates are enhanced when CHO-PRO are coingested after exercise compared with CHO only when the added energy of protein is consumed in addition to, not in place of, carbohydrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- LEE M. MARGOLIS
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - JILLIAN T. ALLEN
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
- Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN
| | | | - STEFAN M. PASIAKOS
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
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Craven J, Desbrow B, Sabapathy S, Bellinger P, McCartney D, Irwin C. The Effect of Consuming Carbohydrate With and Without Protein on the Rate of Muscle Glycogen Re-synthesis During Short-Term Post-exercise Recovery: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2021; 7:9. [PMID: 33507402 PMCID: PMC7843684 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-020-00297-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rapid restoration of muscle glycogen stores is imperative for athletes undertaking consecutive strenuous exercise sessions with limited recovery time (e.g. ≤ 8 h). Strategies to optimise muscle glycogen re-synthesis in this situation are essential. This two-part systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effect of consuming carbohydrate (CHO) with and without protein (PRO) on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery (≤ 8 h). METHODS Studies were identified via the online databases Web of Science and Scopus. Investigations that measured muscle glycogen via needle biopsy during recovery (with the first measurement taken ≤ 30 min post-exercise and at least one additional measure taken ≤ 8 h post-exercise) following a standardised exercise bout (any type) under the following control vs. intervention conditions were included in the meta-analysis: part 1, water (or non-nutrient beverage) vs. CHO, and part 2, CHO vs. CHO+PRO. Publications were examined for methodological quality using the Rosendal scale. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regression analyses were conducted to evaluate intervention efficacy. RESULTS Overall, 29 trials (n = 246 participants) derived from 21 publications were included in this review. The quality assessment yielded a Rosendal score of 61 ± 8% (mean ± standard deviation). Part 1: 10 trials (n = 86) were reviewed. Ingesting CHO during recovery (1.02 ± 0.4 g·kg body mass (BM)-1 h-1) improved the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis compared with water; change in muscle glycogen (MGΔ) re-synthesis rate = 23.5 mmol·kg dm-1 h-1, 95% CI 19.0-27.9, p < 0.001; I2 = 66.8%. A significant positive correlation (R2 = 0.44, p = 0.027) was observed between interval of CHO administration (≤ hourly vs. > hourly) and the mean difference in rate of re-synthesis between treatments. Part 2: 19 trials (n = 160) were reviewed. Ingesting CHO+PRO (CHO: 0.86 ± 0.2 g·kg BM-1 h-1; PRO: 0.27 ± 0.1 g·kg BM-1 h-1) did not improve the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis compared to CHO alone (0.95 ± 0.3 g·kg BM-1 h-1); MGΔ re-synthesis rate = 0.4 mmol·kg dm-1 h-1, 95% CI -2.7 to 3.4, p = 0.805; I2 = 56.4%. CONCLUSIONS Athletes with limited time for recovery between consecutive exercise sessions should prioritise regular intake of CHO, while co-ingesting PRO with CHO appears unlikely to enhance (or impede) the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis. TRIAL REGISTRATION Registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) (identification code CRD42020156841 ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Craven
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, 4222, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Ben Desbrow
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, 4222, Queensland, Australia
| | - Surendran Sabapathy
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, 4222, Queensland, Australia
| | - Phillip Bellinger
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, 4222, Queensland, Australia
- Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Sports Physiology and Performance, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Danielle McCartney
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher Irwin
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, 4222, Queensland, Australia
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Restoration of Muscle Glycogen and Functional Capacity: Role of Post-Exercise Carbohydrate and Protein Co-Ingestion. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10020253. [PMID: 29473893 PMCID: PMC5852829 DOI: 10.3390/nu10020253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2017] [Revised: 02/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of post-exercise recovery nutrition has been well described in recent years, leading to its incorporation as an integral part of training regimes in both athletes and active individuals. Muscle glycogen depletion during an initial prolonged exercise bout is a main factor in the onset of fatigue and so the replenishment of glycogen stores may be important for recovery of functional capacity. Nevertheless, nutritional considerations for optimal short-term (3–6 h) recovery remain incompletely elucidated, particularly surrounding the precise amount of specific types of nutrients required. Current nutritional guidelines to maximise muscle glycogen availability within limited recovery are provided under the assumption that similar fatigue mechanisms (i.e., muscle glycogen depletion) are involved during a repeated exercise bout. Indeed, recent data support the notion that muscle glycogen availability is a determinant of subsequent endurance capacity following limited recovery. Thus, carbohydrate ingestion can be utilised to influence the restoration of endurance capacity following exhaustive exercise. One strategy with the potential to accelerate muscle glycogen resynthesis and/or functional capacity beyond merely ingesting adequate carbohydrate is the co-ingestion of added protein. While numerous studies have been instigated, a consensus that is related to the influence of carbohydrate-protein ingestion in maximising muscle glycogen during short-term recovery and repeated exercise capacity has not been established. When considered collectively, carbohydrate intake during limited recovery appears to primarily determine muscle glycogen resynthesis and repeated exercise capacity. Thus, when the goal is to optimise repeated exercise capacity following short-term recovery, ingesting carbohydrate at an amount of ≥1.2 g kg body mass−1·h−1 can maximise muscle glycogen repletion. The addition of protein to carbohydrate during post-exercise recovery may be beneficial under circumstances when carbohydrate ingestion is sub-optimal (≤0.8 g kg body mass−1·h−1) for effective restoration of muscle glycogen and repeated exercise capacity.
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