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Alessandria M, Angilletta S, Pivetta I, Annone B, Cravanzola S, De Giorgio A. 4-week stretching program after submaximal strength exercise affects performance but not heart rate variability and lactate clearance. An exploratory study. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1424756. [PMID: 38957877 PMCID: PMC11217188 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1424756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that stretching can enhance athletic performance and induce cardiovascular adaptations. This study aims to assess whether a 4-week preventative stretching routine can enhance heart rate variability and heart rate recovery, faster blood lactate clearance, and improve performance following submaximal strength exercises. Twenty-four healthy adults were recruited and randomly allocated to either the experimental group or the control group. Both groups engaged in submaximal strength exercises (5 sets to voluntary failure at 60% of 1RM) comprising bench press and back squat exercises under baseline conditions and after stretching protocol. The experimental group followed the Stretching Protocol, while the control group adhered to their regular training routine. ANOVA analysis revealed a significant pre-post interaction effect between groups in the variable of squat repetitions, although no notable pre- or post-differences were observed in heart rate variability, heart rate recovery, blood lactate concentration, or bench repetitions in either group. A 4-week preventative stretching program does not appear adequate to enhance lactate clearance and cardiovascular adaptation after submaximal strength exercises in resistance-trained individuals compared to the control group. However, it is plausible that such a stretching routine may mitigate muscle fatigue, though further investigation is warranted to substantiate this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Alessandria
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - S. Angilletta
- A.S.D. “SportTiVà?”, Turin, Italy
- Faculty of Psychology, eCampus University, Novedrate, Italy
| | - I. Pivetta
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - B. Annone
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - S. Cravanzola
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - A. De Giorgio
- A.S.D. “SportTiVà?”, Turin, Italy
- Faculty of Psychology, eCampus University, Novedrate, Italy
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Warneke K, Lohmann LH. Revisiting the stretch-induced force deficit: A systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis of acute effects. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024:S2095-2546(24)00069-3. [PMID: 38735533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND When recommending avoidance of static stretching prior to athletic performance, authors and practitioners commonly refer to available systematic reviews. However, effect sizes (ES) in previous reviews were extracted in major part from studies lacking control conditions and/or pre-post testing designs. Also, currently available reviews conducted calculations without accounting for multiple study outcomes, with ES: -0.03 to 0.10, which would commonly be classified as trivial. METHODS Since new meta-analytical software and controlled research articles have appeared since 2013, we revisited the available literature and performed a multilevel meta-analysis using robust variance estimation of controlled pre-post trials to provide updated evidence. Furthermore, previous research described reduced electromyography activity-also attributable to fatiguing training routines-as being responsible for decreased subsequent performance. The second part of this study opposed stretching and alternative interventions sufficient to induce general fatigue to examine whether static stretching induces higher performance losses compared to other exercise routines. RESULTS Including 83 studies with more than 400 ES from 2012 participants, our results indicate a significant, small ES for a static stretch-induced maximal strength loss (ES = -0.21, p = 0.003), with high magnitude ES (ES = -0.84, p = 0.004) for stretching durations ≥60 s per bout when compared to passive controls. When opposed to active controls, the maximal strength loss ranges between ES: -0.17 to -0.28, p < 0.001 and 0.040 with mostly no to small heterogeneity. However, stretching did not negatively influence athletic performance in general (when compared to both passive and active controls); in fact, a positive effect on subsequent jumping performance (ES = 0.15, p = 0.006) was found in adults. CONCLUSION Regarding strength testing of isolated muscles (e.g., leg extensions or calf raises), our results confirm previous findings. Nevertheless, since no (or even positive) effects could be found for athletic performance, our results do not support previous recommendations to exclude static stretching from warm-up routines prior to, for example, jumping or sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Warneke
- Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, Graz A-8010, Austria; Institute of Sport Science, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee 9020, Austria.
| | - Lars Hubertus Lohmann
- Institute of Human Movement and Exercise Physiology, University of Jena, Jena 07749, Germany
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Anvar SH, Granacher U, Konrad A, Alizadeh S, Culleton R, Edwards C, Goudini R, Behm DG. Corticospinal excitability and reflex modulation in a contralateral non-stretched muscle following unilateral stretching. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:1837-1850. [PMID: 37072505 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05200-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Muscle stretching effect on the range of motion (ROM) and force deficit in non-stretched muscle, and the underlying mechanisms, is an ongoing issue. This study aimed to investigate crossover stretching effects and mechanisms on the plantar flexor muscles. METHODS Fourteen recreationally active females (n = 5) and males (n = 9) performed six sets of 45-s static stretching (SS) (15-s recovery) to the point of discomfort of the dominant leg (DL) plantar flexors or control (345-s rest). Participants were tested for a single 5-s pre- and post-test maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) with each plantar flexor muscle and were tested for DL and non-DL ROM. They were tested pre- and post-test (immediate, 10-s, 30-s) for the Hoffman (H)-reflex and motor-evoked potentials (MEP) from transcranial magnetic stimulation in the contralateral, non-stretched muscle. RESULTS Both the DL and non-DL-MVIC force had large magnitude, significant (↓10.87%, p = 0.027, pƞ2 = 0.4) and non-significant (↓9.53%, p = 0.15, pƞ2 = 0.19) decreases respectively with SS. The SS also significantly improved the DL (6.5%, p < 0.001) and non-DL (5.35%, p = 0.002) ROM. The non-DL MEP/MMax and HMax/MMax ratio did not change significantly. CONCLUSION Prolonged static stretching improved the stretched muscle's ROM. However, the stretched limb's force was negatively affected following the stretching protocol. The ROM improvement and large magnitude force impairment (statistically non-significant) were transferred to the contralateral muscles. The lack of significant changes in spinal and corticospinal excitability confirms that the afferent excitability of the spinal motoneurons and corticospinal excitability may not play a substantial role in non-local muscle's ROM or force output responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saman Hadjizadeh Anvar
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Urs Granacher
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Konrad
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
- Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, Graz University, Graz, Austria
| | - Shahab Alizadeh
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Robyn Culleton
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Chris Edwards
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Reza Goudini
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - David G Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.
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Behm DG, Alizadeh S, Drury B, Granacher U, Moran J. Non-local acute stretching effects on strength performance in healthy young adults. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1517-1529. [PMID: 33715049 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04657-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Static stretching (SS) can impair performance and increase range of motion of a non-exercised or non-stretched muscle, respectively. An underdeveloped research area is the effect of unilateral stretching on non-local force output. OBJECTIVE The objective of this review was to describe the effects of unilateral SS on contralateral, non-stretched, muscle force and identify gaps in the literature. METHODS A systematic literature search following preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analyses Protocols guidelines was performed according to prescribed inclusion and exclusion criteria. Weighted means and ranges highlighted the non-local force output response to unilateral stretching. The physiotherapy evidence database scale was used to assess study risk of bias and methodological quality. RESULTS Unilateral stretching protocols from six studies involved 6.3 ± 2 repetitions of 36.3 ± 7.4 s with 19.3 ± 5.7 s recovery between stretches. The mean stretch-induced force deficits exhibited small magnitude effect sizes for both the stretched (-6.7 ± 7.1%, d = -0.35: 0.01 to -1.8) and contralateral, non-stretched, muscles (-4.0 ± 4.9%, d = , 0.22: 0.08 to 1.1). Control measures exhibited trivial deficits. CONCLUSION The limited literature examining non-local effects of prolonged SS revealed that both the stretched and contralateral, non-stretched, limbs of young adults demonstrate small magnitude force deficits. However, the frequency of studies with these effects were similar with three measures demonstrating deficits, and four measures showing trivial changes. These results highlight the possible global (non-local) effects of prolonged SS. Further research should investigate effects of lower intensity stretching, upper versus lower body stretching, different age groups, incorporate full warm-ups, and identify predominant mechanisms among others.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's,, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada.
| | - Shahab Alizadeh
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's,, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
| | - Ben Drury
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucester, UK
| | - Urs Granacher
- Division of Training and Movement Science, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jason Moran
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Essex, UK
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Mechanisms underlying performance impairments following prolonged static stretching without a comprehensive warm-up. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 121:67-94. [PMID: 33175242 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Whereas a variety of pre-exercise activities have been incorporated as part of a "warm-up" prior to work, combat, and athletic activities for millennia, the inclusion of static stretching (SS) within a warm-up has lost favor in the last 25 years. Research emphasized the possibility of SS-induced impairments in subsequent performance following prolonged stretching without proper dynamic warm-up activities. Proposed mechanisms underlying stretch-induced deficits include both neural (i.e., decreased voluntary activation, persistent inward current effects on motoneuron excitability) and morphological (i.e., changes in the force-length relationship, decreased Ca2+ sensitivity, alterations in parallel elastic component) factors. Psychological influences such as a mental energy deficit and nocebo effects could also adversely affect performance. However, significant practical limitations exist within published studies, e.g., long-stretching durations, stretching exercises with little task specificity, lack of warm-up before/after stretching, testing performed immediately after stretch completion, and risk of investigator and participant bias. Recent research indicates that appropriate durations of static stretching performed within a full warm-up (i.e., aerobic activities before and task-specific dynamic stretching and intense physical activities after SS) have trivial effects on subsequent performance with some evidence of improved force output at longer muscle lengths. For conditions in which muscular force production is compromised by stretching, knowledge of the underlying mechanisms would aid development of mitigation strategies. However, these mechanisms are yet to be perfectly defined. More information is needed to better understand both the warm-up components and mechanisms that contribute to performance enhancements or impairments when SS is incorporated within a pre-activity warm-up.
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Ikeda N, Yonezu T, Kawakami Y. Minute oscillation stretching: A novel modality for reducing musculo-tendinous stiffness and maintaining muscle strength. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 31:104-114. [PMID: 32969540 PMCID: PMC7756383 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A novel stretching modality was developed to provide repetitive small length changes to the plantar flexors undergoing passive stretch defined as "minute oscillation stretching" (MOS). This study investigated the effects of MOS on neuromuscular activity during force production, the rate of torque development (RTD), and the elastic properties of the plantar flexors and Achilles tendon. Ten healthy males participated in this study. The neuromuscular activity of the triceps surae and tibialis anterior muscles during maximal voluntary plantar flexion torque [MVT], RTD of plantar flexion, Achilles tendon stiffness, and muscle stiffness were measured before and after two types of interventions for a total of 5 minutes: static stretching (SS) and MOS at 15 Hz and without intervention (control). Achilles tendon stiffness was calculated from the tendon elongation measuring by ultrasonography. Muscle stiffness was determined for the medial gastrocnemius [MG] using shear wave elastography. The MVT, mean electromyographic amplitudes [mEMG] of MG and lateral gastrocnemius [LG], and RTD were significantly decreased following SS (MVT: -7.2 ± 7.9%; mEMG of MG: -8.7 ± 10.2%; mEMG of LG: -12.4 ± 10.5%; RTD: -6.6 ± 6.8%), but not after MOS. Achilles tendon stiffness significantly decreased after SS (-13.4 ± 12.3%) and MOS (-9.7 ± 11.5%), with no significant differences between them. Muscle stiffness significantly decreased in SS and MOS, with relative changes being significantly greater for MOS (-7.9 ± 8.3%) than SS (-2.3 ± 2.9%) interventions. All variables remained unchanged in the controls. In conclusion, MOS changed muscle-tendon compliance without loss of muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Ikeda
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan.,Institute for General Education, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan
| | - Takahisa Yonezu
- School of Physical Education, Department of Competitive Sports, Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Japan
| | - Yasuo Kawakami
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan
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Atalağ O, Kurt C, Solyomvari E, Sands J, Cline C. Postactivation potentiation effects of Back Squat and Barbell Hip Thrust exercise on vertical jump and sprinting performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 60:1223-1230. [PMID: 32586077 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.10888-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to determine and compare the post-activation potentiation (PAP) effects of the Back Squat (SQ-PAP) and Hip Thrust (HT-PAP) exercises in terms of vertical jump height (VJ), 20-yard dash and 40-yard dash time in physically active university students. Considering the Force-vector theory, it was hypothesized that HT-PAP would induce greater potentiation for 40-yard dash than SQ-PAP whereas SQ-PAP would induce greater potentiation for 20-yard dash and VJ than HT-PAP. METHODS Seventeen kinesiology and exercise science students (8 male and 9 female) who resistance train at least 3 times/week (age, 21.71±1.49 years; body mass, 75.58±11.89 kg; height, 173.98±11.88 cm and training experience 5.47±2.00 years) joined this study. They performed three experimental sessions namely; baseline (BL), SQ-PAP loading session and HT-PAP loading session with 48 hours interval with a randomized open crossover study design. BL session was also accepted as control and familiarization session. SQ-PAP and HT-PAP exercises were performed roughly at 90% of 1 Repetition maximum (1 RM) of the subjects with three repetitions. Subjects were tested for vertical jump height (VJ), 20-yard dash and 40-yard dash time before and 8 minutes after each PAP loading exercise. RESULTS Statistical analysis revealed that the potentiation effects of SQ-PAP and HT-PAP exercises on VJ height, 20-yard and 40-yard dash were similar that none of the loading exercises with 8 min rest interval had any increasing or detrimental performance effect on VJ (P=0.923), 20-yard dash (P=0.133) as well 40-yard dash time (P=0.570). CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that none of the loading protocols with above mentioned exercises have any detrimental or improving effects on VJ height, 20-yard dash and 40-yard dash time for physically active university students who joined this study. Although no acute potentiation effect has been found, this study also shows that SQ-PAP, HT-PAP exercises can be used interchangeably and safely to avoid training monotony during longer training periods for chronic adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozan Atalağ
- Department of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI, USA -
| | - Cem Kurt
- Department of Coaching Education, School of Kirkpinar Physical Education and Sports, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
| | - Evelin Solyomvari
- Department of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI, USA
| | - Jacob Sands
- Department of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI, USA
| | - Ciera Cline
- Department of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI, USA
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