Effects of repeated long-duration water immersions on skeletal muscle performance in well-trained male divers

Electrode Size and Placement for Surface EMG Bipolar Detection from the Brachioradialis Muscle: A Scoping Review

The brachioradialis muscle (BRD) is one of the main elbow flexors and is often assessed by surface electromyography (sEMG) in physiology, clinical, sports, ergonomics, and bioengineering applications. The reliability of the sEMG measurement strongly relies on the characteristics of the detection system used, because of possible crosstalk from the surrounding forearm muscles. We conducted a scoping review of the main databases to explore available guidelines of electrode placement on BRD and to map the electrode configurations used and authors’ awareness on the issues of crosstalk. One hundred and thirty-four studies were included in the review. The crosstalk was mentioned in 29 studies, although two studies only were specifically designed to assess it. One hundred and six studies (79%) did not even address the issue by generically placing the sensors above BRD, usually choosing large disposable ECG electrodes. The analysis of the literature highlights a general lack of awareness on the issues of crosstalk and the need for adequate training in the sEMG field. Three guidelines were found, whose recommendations have been compared and summarized to promote reliability in further studies. In particular, it is crucial to use miniaturized electrodes placed on a specific area over the muscle, especially when BRD activity is recorded for clinical applications.

Consecutive, Resting, Long-Duration Hyperoxic Exposures Alter Neuromuscular Responses During Maximal Strength Exercises in Trained Men

Purpose: The main objective of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of repetitive diving-induced hyperoxic conditions at 1.35 atmospheres absolute (ATA) on neuromuscular strength performance. We hypothesized that following five days of consecutive, resting, long-duration (6 h or more) hyperoxic water immersions (WIs) neuromuscular strength performance would be reduced with a longer recovery time in comparison to previously reported normoxic WIs. Methods: Thirteen (n = 13) active male divers [31.3 ± 1.7 (24-43) years, mean ± years] completed five consecutive days of 6-h resting WIs with 18-h surface intervals while breathing 100% O₂ (n = 13) at 1.35 ATA. Skeletal muscle performance assessments occurred immediately before and after each WI and 24 and 72 h after the final WI. Performance assessments included maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and maximal isokinetic (IK) knee extensions and elbow flexions, and isometric maximum handgrip (MHG) strength. Neuromuscular activation was also measured on the quadriceps, biceps brachii, and brachioradialis via surface electromyography (sEMG). Results: MHG declined by 7.8% (p < 0.001) by WI 5 with performance returning to baseline by 24-h post-WI. Brachioradialis neuromuscular activation increased by 42% on WI 5. MVIC knee extension performance dropped by 4% (p = 0.001) on WI 3 with a 11% overall decrease in quadriceps neuromuscular activation. Maximal IK knee extension dropped by 3.3% on WI 5 with 9% drop in overall quadriceps activation during the same period. MVIC elbow flexion declined by 5.1% on WI 5 but returned to baseline by 72-h post-WI. Maximal IK elbow flexion performance dropped by 8.6% on WI 5 with a continual decline in biceps brachii neuromuscular activation of 24% on WI 5. Conclusion: Consecutive, resting, long-duration hyperoxic WIs reduce muscular performance in multiple muscle groups and alter neuromuscular activation after 3 days of WI with performance adaptations recovering toward baseline by the end of the WI 5. However, neuromuscular activation remains decreased and appears to last beyond the 72-h post-WI recovery period.

Effects of Repeated, Long-Duration Hyperoxic Water Immersions on Neuromuscular Endurance in Well-Trained Males

Purpose

This study examined the effects of repeated long-duration hyperoxic water immersions (WIs) at 1.35 atmospheres absolute (ATA) on neuromuscular endurance performance. We hypothesized that over a 5-day period of consecutive, resting, long-duration hyperoxic WIs there would be a decrease to neuromuscular endurance performance and tissue oxygenation with the quadriceps muscle, but not with the forearm flexors.

Methods

Thirteen well-trained, male subjects completed five consecutive 6-h resting WIs with 18-h surface intervals during the dive week while breathing 100% oxygen at 1.35 ATA. We assessed skeletal muscle endurance performance before and after each WI, and 24 and 72 h after the final WI. Muscular endurance assessments included 40% maximal handgrip endurance (MHE) and 50-repetition maximal isokinetic (IK) knee extensions. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was used to measure muscle oxidative capacity (MOC) of the vastus lateralis and localized muscle tissue oxygenation of the vastus lateralis and flexor carpi radialis. Simultaneously, we measured brachioradialis neuromuscular activation by surface electromyography (SEMG).

Results

MHE time-to-fatigue performance declined by 15% at WI 3 (p = 0.009) and by 17% on WI 5 (p = 0.002). Performance continued to decline by 22% at 24-h post-WI (p < 0.001) and by 12% on 72-h post-WI (p = 0.019). Fifty-repetition IK knee extension total work decreased by 5% (p = 0.002) on WI 3, and was further reduced by 7.5 and 12.3% (p = 0.032) at pre-WI 5 and 24-h post-WI, respectively. However, the rate of fatigue was 8 (p = 0.033) and 30% (p = 0.017) lower at WI 3 and 24-h post-WI when compared to WI 1, respectively, demonstrating the muscles were still fatigued from the previous hyperoxic WIs. We detected no significant limitations in oxygen off-loading kinetics during the exercise or MOC measurements.

Conclusion

Repeated, resting, long-duration hyperoxic WIs caused significant reductions to muscular endurance but not to indirect measures of oxygen kinetics in load bearing and non-load bearing muscles.

Effects of Resting, Consecutive, Long-Duration Water Immersions on Neuromuscular Endurance in Well-Trained Males

Purpose: This study examined the effects of repeated long-duration water immersions (WI)s at 1.35 atmospheres absolute (ATA) on neuromuscular endurance performance. We hypothesized that, following 5 days of consecutive, resting, long-duration WIs, neuromuscular endurance performance would decrease.

Methods: Fifteen well-trained, male subjects completed five consecutive 6-h resting WIs with 18-h surface intervals during the dive week while breathing compressed air at 1.35 ATA. Skeletal muscle endurance performance was assessed before and after each WI, and 24 and 72 h after the final WI. Muscular endurance assessments included 40% maximum handgrip endurance (MHE) and 50-repetition maximal isokinetic knee extensions. Near infrared spectroscopy was used to measure muscle oxidative capacity of the vastus lateralis and localized muscle tissue oxygenation of the vastus lateralis and flexor carpi radialis. Simultaneously, brachioradialis neuromuscular activation was measured by surface electromyography.

Results: A 24.9% increase (p = 0.04) in the muscle oxidative capacity rate constant (k) occurred on WI 4 compared to baseline. No changes occurred in 40% MHE time to exhaustion or rate of fatigue or total work performed for the 50-repetition maximal isokinetic knee extension. The first quartile of deoxygenated hemoglobin concentration showed a 6 and 35% increase on WIs 3 and 5 (p = 0.026) with second quartile increases of 9 and 32% on WIs 3 and 5 (p = 0.049) during the 40% MHE testing when compared to WI 1.

Conclusion: Our specific WI protocol resulted in no change to muscular endurance and oxygen kinetics in load bearing and non-load bearing muscles.