The association of elevated blood pressure during ischaemic exercise with sport performance in Master athletes with and without morbidity

What We Do Not Know About Stretching in Healthy Athletes: A Scoping Review with Evidence Gap Map from 300 Trials

BACKGROUND

Stretching has garnered significant attention in sports sciences, resulting in numerous studies. However, there is no comprehensive overview on investigation of stretching in healthy athletes.

OBJECTIVES

To perform a systematic scoping review with an evidence gap map of stretching studies in healthy athletes, identify current gaps in the literature, and provide stakeholders with priorities for future research.

METHODS

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 and PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed. We included studies comprising healthy athletes exposed to acute and/or chronic stretching interventions. Six databases were searched (CINAHL, EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) until 1 January 2023. The relevant data were narratively synthesized; quantitative data summaries were provided for key data items. An evidence gap map was developed to offer an overview of the existing research and relevant gaps.

RESULTS

Of ~ 220,000 screened records, we included 300 trials involving 7080 athletes [mostly males (~ 65% versus ~ 20% female, and ~ 15% unreported) under 36 years of age; tiers 2 and 3 of the Participant Classification Framework] across 43 sports. Sports requiring extreme range of motion (e.g., gymnastics) were underrepresented. Most trials assessed the acute effects of stretching, with chronic effects being scrutinized in less than 20% of trials. Chronic interventions averaged 7.4 ± 5.1 weeks and never exceeded 6 months. Most trials (~ 85%) implemented stretching within the warm-up, with other application timings (e.g., post-exercise) being under-researched. Most trials examined static active stretching (62.3%), followed by dynamic stretching (38.3%) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching (12.0%), with scarce research on alternative methods (e.g., ballistic stretching). Comparators were mostly limited to passive controls, with ~ 25% of trials including active controls (e.g., strength training). The lower limbs were primarily targeted by interventions (~ 75%). Reporting of dose was heterogeneous in style (e.g., 10 repetitions versus 10 s for dynamic stretching) and completeness of information (i.e., with disparities in the comprehensiveness of the provided information). Most trials (~ 90%) reported performance-related outcomes (mainly strength/power and range of motion); sport-specific outcomes were collected in less than 15% of trials. Biomechanical, physiological, and neural/psychological outcomes were assessed sparsely and heterogeneously; only five trials investigated injury-related outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

There is room for improvement, with many areas of research on stretching being underexplored and others currently too heterogeneous for reliable comparisons between studies. There is limited representation of elite-level athletes (~ 5% tier 4 and no tier 5) and underpowered sample sizes (≤ 20 participants). Research was biased toward adult male athletes of sports not requiring extreme ranges of motion, and mostly assessed the acute effects of static active stretching and dynamic stretching during the warm-up. Dose-response relationships remain largely underexplored. Outcomes were mostly limited to general performance testing. Injury prevention and other effects of stretching remain poorly investigated. These relevant research gaps should be prioritized by funding policies.

REGISTRATION

OSF project ( https://osf.io/6auyj/ ) and registration ( https://osf.io/gu8ya ).

Comparative features of the morphometric correlates of blood pressure response to physical load of qualified athletes in some sports

Purpose: the purpose of this study was to establish morphometric parameters that correlate with the reactivity and recovery of blood pressure in response to a standard physical load in athletes of various game sports. Material & Methods: to achieve the set goal, 101 qualified male athletes engaged in game sports were examined. All examined represented 3 game sports: 13 – water polo (average age 27.3±6.3 years), 59 – volleyball (average age 21.1±2.5 years), 29 – handball (average age 20.9±2.8 years). The morphometric study was carried out by traditional methods and included the determination of body length (BL, cm), body weight (BW, kg), chest circumference (CC, cm) with calculation of chest excursion (CE, cm), hand dynamometry, vital lung capacity (VLC, ml). Body mass index (BMI, kg×m–2), vital index (VI, ml×kg–1) and Erismann index (IE, c.u.) were calculated separately. The Martine test (20 squats in 30 seconds) was performed according to the traditional method. Results: changes in SBP in response to load were the significantly greater in handball players compared to water polo players (p=0.025) and compared to volleyball players (p=0.022). Changes in SBP during 3 minutes of recovery are not related to morphometric parameters and obey the general mechanisms of changes in hemodynamic support under the influence of physical load. Changes in DBP during 3 minutes of recovery are related to chest circumference (CC, cm) and proportionality of its development (IE, c.u.) in volleyball and water polo players, and with BW (kg) in handball players. Changes in PBP during 3 minutes of recovery in handball players are not differentiated, in volleyball players they are related to the proportionality of chest development (IE, c.u.), and in water polo players to the BW (kg), CC (cm), mobility and proportionality of chest development (CE, cm and IE, c.u.). Conclusions: the obtained results confirm that changes in DBP and PBP in response to physical load and during the recovery period after it are related to the morphometric parameters of the body, which can characterize the mechanisms of hemodynamic maintenance recovery and be useful in the selection and the organization of recovery measures in certain sports sport.

Comparative features of the morphometric correlates of blood pressure response to physical load of qualified athletes in some sports

Purpose: the purpose of this study was to establish morphometric parameters that correlate with the reactivity and recovery of blood pressure in response to a standard physical load in athletes of various game sports. Material & Methods: to achieve the set goal, 101 qualified male athletes engaged in game sports were examined. All examined represented 3 game sports: 13 – water polo (average age 27.3±6.3 years), 59 – volleyball (average age 21.1±2.5 years), 29 – handball (average age 20.9±2.8 years). The morphometric study was carried out by traditional methods and included the determination of body length (BL, cm), body weight (BW, kg), chest circumference (CC, cm) with calculation of chest excursion (CE, cm), hand dynamometry, vital lung capacity (VLC, ml). Body mass index (BMI, kg×m–2), vital index (VI, ml×kg–1) and Erismann index (IE, c.u.) were calculated separately. The Martine test (20 squats in 30 seconds) was performed according to the traditional method. Results: changes in SBP in response to load were the significantly greater in handball players compared to water polo players (p=0.025) and compared to volleyball players (p=0.022). Changes in SBP during 3 minutes of recovery are not related to morphometric parameters and obey the general mechanisms of changes in hemodynamic support under the influence of physical load. Changes in DBP during 3 minutes of recovery are related to chest circumference (CC, cm) and proportionality of its development (IE, c.u.) in volleyball and water polo players, and with BW (kg) in handball players. Changes in PBP during 3 minutes of recovery in handball players are not differentiated, in volleyball players they are related to the proportionality of chest development (IE, c.u.), and in water polo players to the BW (kg), CC (cm), mobility and proportionality of chest development (CE, cm and IE, c.u.). Conclusions: the obtained results confirm that changes in DBP and PBP in response to physical load and during the recovery period after it are related to the morphometric parameters of the body, which can characterize the mechanisms of hemodynamic maintenance recovery and be useful in the selection and the organization of recovery measures in certain sports sport.