Evidence-based use of enteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis

Classification and Nutrition Management of Acute Pancreatitis in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit

The aims of this retrospective cohort study were to classify the severity of patients admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) with acute pancreatitis (AP) and to identify how many patients received appropriate nutritional management in accordance with more recent guidelines and the outcomes of those patients. Of the 54 children with AP, 12 (22.2%) had a primary diagnosis of AP (50% severe, 17% moderate) whereas 42 (77.8%) had a secondary diagnosis of AP (81% severe, 11.9% moderate). Just under half of the patients (48.1%) had enteral nutrition commenced before the third day of admission (50% with primary AP, 47.6% with secondary AP). The average time to initiation of enteral feeds was 2.3 days for those that received enteral nutrition. 51.8% of patients received parenteral nutrition (25% with primary AP, 59.5% with secondary AP). Most patients received enteral nutrition late and parenteral nutrition was overused in patients with AP admitted to the PICU.

Nutritional Considerations in Pediatric Pancreatitis: A Position Paper from the NASPGHAN Pancreas Committee and ESPGHAN Cystic Fibrosis/Pancreas Working Group

OBJECTIVES

Wide variations exist in how physicians manage the nutritional aspects of children affected by acute pancreatitis (AP), acute recurrent pancreatitis (ARP), and chronic (CP) pancreatitis. Better consensus for optimal management is needed.

METHODS

This consensus statement on nutrition in pediatric pancreatic diseases was developed through a joint ESPGHAN-NASPGHAN working group that performed an evidence-based search of the literature on nutrition in AP, ARP, and CP with a focus on pediatrics. The literature was summarized, quality of evidence reviewed, and expert recommendations developed. The authorship met to discuss the evidence and statements. Voting on recommendations occurred over 2 rounds based on feedback. A consensus of at least 75% was required to approve a recommendation. Areas requiring further research were identified.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The literature on nutrition in pediatric pancreatitis is limited. Children with mild AP benefit from starting an early nutritional regimen in the course of the attack. Early nutrition should be attempted in severe AP when possible; enteral nutrition is preferred over parenteral nutrition. Children with ARP are likely to tolerate and benefit from a regular diet. Children with CP need ongoing assessment for growth and nutritional deficiencies, exocrine and endocrine insufficiencies.

CONCLUSIONS

This document presents the first authoritative recommendations on nutritional considerations in pediatric pancreatitis. Future research should address the gaps in knowledge particularly relating to optimal nutrition for AP in children, role of diet or dietary supplements on recurrent attacks of pancreatitis and pain episodes, monitoring practices to detect early growth and nutritional deficiencies in CP and identifying risk factors that predispose children to these deficiencies.

An immune-modulating formula comprising whey peptides and fermented milk improves inflammation-related remote organ injuries in diet-induced acute pancreatitis in mice

It has been demonstrated that an immune-modulating enteral formula enriched with whey peptides and fermented milk (IMF) had anti-inflammatory effects in some experimental models when it was administered before the induction of inflammation. Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of the IMF administration after the onset of systemic inflammation and investigated whether the IMF could improve the remote organ injuries in an acute pancreatitis (AP) model. Mice were fasted for 12 hours and then fed a choline-deficient and ethionine-supplemented diet (CDE diet) for 24 hours to induce pancreatitis. In experiment 1, the diet was replaced with a control enteral formula, and mice were sacrificed at 24-hour intervals for 96 hours. In experiment 2, mice were randomized into control and IMF groups and received the control formula or the IMF respectively for 72 hr or 96 hr. In experiment 1, pancreatitis was induced by the CDE diet, and inflammatory mediators were elevated for several days. Remote organ injuries such as splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and elevation of the hepatic enzymes developed. A significant strong positive correlation was observed between plasma MCP-1 and hepatic enzymes. In experiment 2, the IMF significantly improved splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and the elevation of hepatic enzymes. Plasma MCP-1 levels were significantly lower in the IMF group than in the control group. Nutrition management with the IMF may be useful for alleviating remote organ injuries after AP.

Management of Acute Pancreatitis in the Pediatric Population: A Clinical Report From the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition Pancreas Committee

BACKGROUND

Although the incidence of acute pancreatitis (AP) in children is increasing, management recommendations rely on adult published guidelines. Pediatric-specific recommendations are needed.

METHODS

The North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition Pancreas committee performed a MEDLINE review using several preselected key terms relating to management considerations in adult and pediatric AP. The literature was summarized, quality of evidence reviewed, and statements of recommendations developed. The authorship met to discuss the evidence, statements, and voted on recommendations. A consensus of at least 75% was required to approve a recommendation.

RESULTS

The diagnosis of pediatric AP should follow the published INternational Study Group of Pediatric Pancreatitis: In Search for a CuRE definitions (by meeting at least 2 out of 3 criteria: (1) abdominal pain compatible with AP, (2) serum amylase and/or lipase values ≥3 times upper limits of normal, (3) imaging findings consistent with AP). Adequate fluid resuscitation with crystalloid appears key especially within the first 24 hours. Analgesia may include opioid medications when opioid-sparing measures are inadequate. Pulmonary, cardiovascular, and renal status should be closely monitored particularly within the first 48 hours. Enteral nutrition should be started as early as tolerated, whether through oral, gastric, or jejunal route. Little evidence supports the use of prophylactic antibiotics, antioxidants, probiotics, and protease inhibitors. Esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, and endoscopic ultrasonography have limited roles in diagnosis and management. Children should be carefully followed for development of early or late complications and recurrent attacks of AP.

CONCLUSIONS

This clinical report represents the first English-language recommendations for the management of pediatric AP. Future aims should include prospective multicenter pediatric studies to further validate these recommendations and optimize care for children with AP.

Clinical practice guideline: management of acute pancreatitis

ABSTRACT

There has been an increase in the incidence of acute pancreatitis reported worldwide. Despite improvements in access to care, imaging and interventional techniques, acute pancreatitis continues to be associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Despite the availability of clinical practice guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis, recent studies auditing the clinical management of the condition have shown important areas of noncompliance with evidence-based recommendations. This underscores the importance of creating understandable and implementable recommendations for the diagnosis and management of acute pancreatitis. The purpose of the present guideline is to provide evidence-based recommendations for the management of both mild and severe acute pancreatitis as well as the management of complications of acute pancreatitis and of gall stone-induced pancreatitis.

Early Enteral Nutrition in Children With Acute Pancreatitis

Nutrition is an integral part of acute pancreatitis (AP) management and is not adequately studied in pediatrics. The goal from the present study was to evaluate the effect of nutrition and fat content on the length of stay and pain severity in patients with AP. This is a retrospective review of our nutrition database between May 1, 2014 and December 1, 2014. Pain levels were similar between patients who were allowed to feed and patients kept nill per os. Higher fat intake grams per kilogram per day was associated with significantly lower pain scores. Early feeds are feasible in pediatric patients with AP. Pain was not increased in the group that had more fat in their diet.

Intra-abdominal pressure: Time ripe to revise management guidelines of acute pancreatitis?

AIM

To systematically review evidence on pathophysiology of intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) in acute pancreatitis (AP) with its clinical correlates.

METHODS

Systematic review of available evidence in English literature with relevant medical subject heading terms on PubMed, Medline and Scopus with further search from open access sources on internet as suggested by articles retrieved.

RESULTS

Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) is increasingly gaining recognition as a point of specific intervention with potential to alter disease outcome and improve mortality in AP. IAH can be expected in at least 17% of patients presenting with diagnosis of AP to a typical tertiary care hospital (prevalence increasing to 50% in those with severe disease). Abdominal compartment syndrome can be expected in at least 15% patients with severe disease. Recent guidelines on management of AP do not acknowledge utility of surveillance for IAP other than those by Japanese Society of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery. We further outline pathophysiologic mechanisms of IAH; understanding of which advances our knowledge and helps to coherently align common observed variations in management related conundrums (such as fluid therapy, nutrition and antibiotic prophylaxis) with potential to further individualize treatment in AP.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that IAP be given its due place in future practice guidelines and that recommendations be formed with help of a broader panel with inclusion of clinicians experienced in management of IAH.

Compliance with Evidence-Based Guidelines in Acute Pancreatitis: an Audit of Practices in University of Toronto Hospitals

Despite existing evidence-based practice guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis, clinical compliance with recommendations is poor. We conducted a retrospective review of 248 patients admitted between 2010 and 2012 with acute pancreatitis at eight University of Toronto affiliated hospitals. We included all patients admitted to ICU (52) and 25 ward patients from each site (196). Management was compared with the most current evidence used in the Best Practice in General Surgery Management of Acute Pancreatitis Guideline. Fifty-six patients (22.6 %) had only serum lipase tested for biochemical diagnosis. Admission ultrasound was performed in 174 (70.2 %) patients, with 69 (27.8 %) undergoing ultrasound and CT. Of non-ICU patients, 158 (80.6 %) were maintained nil per os, and only 18 (34.6 %) ICU patients received enteral nutrition, commencing an average 7.5 days post-admission. Fifty (25.5 %) non-ICU patients and 25 (48.1 %) ICU patients received prophylactic antibiotics. Only 24 patients (22.6 %) with gallstone pancreatitis underwent index admission cholecystectomy. ERCP with sphincterotomy was under-utilized among patients with biliary obstruction (16 [31 %]) and candidates for prophylactic sphincterotomy (18 [22 %]). Discrepancies exist between the most current evidence and clinical practice within the University of Toronto hospitals. A guideline, knowledge translation strategy, and assessment of barriers to clinical uptake are required to change current clinical practice.

Early Enteral Nutrition and Aggressive Fluid Resuscitation are Associated with Improved Clinical Outcomes in Acute Pancreatitis

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether recommendations for treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP) in adults impact the outcomes of pediatric AP.

STUDY DESIGN

Adult guidelines regarding early management of AP were implemented through an admission order set at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center at the beginning of the year 2014. Recommendations included administering high rates of intravenous fluid (IVF) within 24 hours of admission and enteral nutrition within 48 hours of admission. A retrospective chart review of AP admissions before and after the implementation of the recommendations was undertaken. Outcomes studied were: hospital length of stay, intensive care unit transfer rates, development of severe AP, pulmonary complications, and readmission rates post discharge from the hospital.

RESULTS

The study included 201 patients. Children who received feeds within the first 48 hours and received greater than maintenance IVF within 24 hours had a shorter length of stay, less intensive care unit admissions and severe AP rates compared with the patients who remained nil per os during the first 48 hours and received lower rates of IVF.

CONCLUSION

Our data support that early enteral nutrition and early aggressive IVF improve outcomes of pediatric AP.

Enteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis: A review of the current evidence

The use of enteral feeding as part of the management of acute pancreatitis dates back almost two decades. This review describes the indications for and limitations of enteral feeding for the treatment of acute pancreatitis using up-to-date evidence-based data. A systematic review was carried out to analyse current data on the use of enteral nutrition in the management of acute pancreatitis. Relevant literature was analysed from the viewpoints of enteral vs parenteral feeding, early vs delayed enteral nutrition, nasogastric vs nasojejunal feeding, and early oral diet and immunonutrition, particularly glutamine and probiotic supplementation. Finally, current applicable guidelines and the effects of these guidelines on clinical practice are discussed. The latest meta-analyses suggest that enteral nutrition significantly reduces the mortality rate of severe acute pancreatitis compared to parenteral feeding. To maintain gut barrier function and prevent early bacterial translocation, enteral feeding should be commenced within the first 24 h of hospital admission. Also, the safety of nasogastric feeding, which eases the administration of enteral nutrients in the clinical setting, is likely equal to nasojejunal feeding. Furthermore, an early low-fat oral diet is potentially beneficial in patients with mild pancreatitis. Despite the initial encouraging results, the current evidence does not support the use of immunoenhanced nutrients or probiotics in patients with acute pancreatitis.

Update to the management of pediatric acute pancreatitis: highlighting areas in need of research

Acute pancreatitis is an emerging problem in pediatrics, with an incidence that is rising in the last 2 decades. Data regarding the optimal management and physician practice patterns are lacking. We present a literature review and updates on the management of pediatric pancreatitis. Prospective multicenter studies defining optimal management of pediatric pancreatitis are needed to guide care and improve outcomes for this patient population.

[Intravenous glutamine and early nasojejunal nutrition in severe acute pancreatitis -- a prospective randomized clinical study]

INTRODUCTION

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is still one of the great challenges in gastro-intestinal surgery. According to recent studies, intravenously administered glutamine with total parenteral nutrition may be beneficial in the prevention of infectious complications and may reduce mortality rate. However, it has not been investigated yet, whether i.v. glutamine is able to achieve the same effect with early enteral nutrition as well.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of our prospective randomized double-blind study was to explore the effects of intravenously administered glutamine with early nasojejunal nutrition in severe acute pancreatitis.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Forty-five patients with severe acute pancreatitis (with a Glasgow score at least 3 and/or a CRP level above 150 mg/ml on admission) were randomized into two groups. Group Glutamine (n = 24) was given 0.5 g/kg/die glutamine intravenously, while the control group (n = 21) received normal amino acid solution in the same quantity for 7 days. Nasojejunal nutrition was introduced 48 hours after admission in case of all patients, and their management was the same in every other aspect, too. The primary end-points of the study were the rate of pancreas-specific infectious complications and organ failure, and the secondary end-points were the necessity for radiological and surgical interventions, length of hospital stay and mortality rate.

RESULTS

In group Glutamine, infected acute peripancreatic fluid collections (APFC) were detected in 4 patients, 2 patients had post-necrotic pancreatic/peripancreatic fluid collections (PNPFC), 2 patients had infected pseudocysts and 2 patients had walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN). Ten patients were cured by ultrasound assisted puncture or drainage successfully. No surgical intervention was necessary. In the control group, 4 patients had infected APFC, 2 patients had infected PNPFC, infected pseudocysts and infected WOPN were diagnosed in 3 cases. Radiological intervention was effective in 9 cases, but 3 patients needed surgery. Three patients died of multi-organ failure, thus the mortality rate of the control group was 14%, while the mortality rate of the Glutamine group was zero. The mean hospital stay of the Glutamine group was 10.6 days, which is significantly shorter than the mean hospital stay of the control group, which was 15.9 days (p = 0.00104).

DISCUSSION

The results of the Glutamine group are better in every end-points, however, statistically significant difference was detected in one parameter only, the length of hospital stay.

Effects of prophylactic antibiotics in acute pancreatitis

OBJECTIVES

The use of prophylactic antibiotics in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is controversial. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of antibiotics administered as prophylaxis and as treatment on demand, respectively, in two prospective, non-randomized cohorts of patients.

METHODS

The study population consisted of 210 patients treated for SAP. In Group 1 (n= 103), patients received prophylactic antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, metronidazole). In Group 2 (n= 107), patients were treated on demand. Ultrasound-guided drainage and/or surgical debridement of infected necrosis were performed when the presence of infected pancreatic necrosis was demonstrated. The primary endpoints were infectious complication rate, need for and timing of surgical interventions, incidence of nosocomial infections and mortality rate.

RESULTS

Ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration [in 18 (16.8%) vs. 13 (12.6%) patients; P= 0.714], ultrasound-guided drainage [in 15 (14.0%) vs. six (5.8%) patients; P= 0.065] and open surgical necrosectomy [in 10 (9.3%) vs. five (4.9%) patients; P= 0.206] were performed more frequently and earlier [at 16.6 ± 7.8 days vs. 17.2 ± 6.7 days (P= 0.723); at 19.5 ± 9.4 days vs. 24.5 ± 14.2 days (P= 0.498), and at 22.6 ± 13.5 days vs. 26.7 ± 18.1 days (P= 0.826), respectively] in Group 2 compared with Group 1. There were no significant differences between groups in mortality and duration of stay in the surgical ward or intensive care unit.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study support the suggestion that the use of prophylactic antibiotics does not affect mortality rate, but may decrease the need for interventional and surgical management, and lower the number of reoperations.

Nutritional support in acute and chronic pancreatitis

Nutritional support can have a significant beneficial impact on the course of moderate to severe acute pancreatitis. Enteral nutrition is preferred, with emphasis on establishment of jejunal access; however, parenteral nutrition can also be of value if intestinal failure is present. Early initiation of nutritional support is critical, with benefits decreasing rapidly if begun after 48 hours from admission. Severe malnutrition in chronic pancreatitis can be avoided or treated with dietary modifications or enteral nutrition.

A meta-analysis of enteral nutrition and total parenteral nutrition in patients with acute pancreatitis

Objective. To analyze the effect of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and enteral nutrition (EN) in patients with acute pancreatitis. Methods. Randomized controlled trials of TPN and EN in patients with acute pancreatitis were searched in NCBI and CBM databases and The Cochrane Controlled Trials Register. Six studies were enrolled into the analysis, and the details about the trial designs, characters of the subjects, results of the studies were reviewed by two independent authors and analyzed by STATA 11.0 software. Results. Compared with TPN, EN was associated with a significantly lower incidence of pancreatic infection complications (RR = 0.556, 95% CI 0.436∼0.709, P = .000), MOF (RR = 0.395, 95% CI 0.272∼0.573, P = .003), surgical interventions (RR = 0.556, 95% CI 0.436∼0.709, P = .000), and mortality (RR = 0.426, 95% CI 0.238∼0.764, P = .167). There was no statistic significance in non-pancreatitis-related complications (RR = 0.853, 95% CI 0.490∼1.483, P = .017). However, EN had a significantly higher incidence of non-infection-related complications (RR = 2.697, 95% CI 1.947∼3.735, P = .994). Conclusion. EN could be the preferred nutrition feeding method in patients with acute pancreatitis.

Community-Based Appraisal of the Effects of Parenteral Nutrition Versus Enteral Nutrition on the Quality of Care for Patients With Acute Pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Enteral nutrition (EN) rather than parenteral nutrition (PN) has been advocated in treatment guidelines for acute pancreatitis (AP) as endorsed in randomized studies or meta-analyses. The findings derived from those studies would recognize the criticism of smaller sample sizes or limited patient case-mixes. To determine the generalizability of those findings, community-based appraisal on the advantages of EN over PN is required. Using a Japanese administrative database between 2006 and 2010, we determine whether EN is superior to PN in the real clinical settings.

METHODS

A total of 24,913 patients diagnosed with AP at admission in 1,000 hospitals were identified. Among them, we analyzed 1,803 patients of ≥ 15 years who received EN or PN for AP across 480 hospitals. Among three nutrition categories of PN only, EN only and PN with EN, we examined patient characteristics, comorbidities, complications, AP severity score determined by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, surgical procedures for the biliary/pancreatic system, use of artificially assisted ventilation and hemodialysis proxy of multiple organ failures and hospital teaching status. To identify the variables associated with PN use, a logistic regression model was used and the propensity score (PS) was calculated to control for the selection bias of patient case-mix preferring PN use. Then, we compared mortality, length of hospital stay (LOS), total charges (TC) and commencement day of oral food intake between EN and PN.

RESULTS

A total of 1,191 PN patients, 330 EN patients and 282 mixed EN and PN patients were identified. EN was indicated for patients with mild AP and procedures for the pancreas. PS matching analysis indicated that PN had a higher mortality compared with EN, and PN significantly increased LOS and TC compared with EN. PN deterred the commencement of oral food intake.

CONCLUSIONS

Community-based study has shown that EN was employed in the less severe case-mixed. Even though considering that selection bias, EN was still superior to PN in AP. Physicians should be aware of the guidelines for the advocacy of EN and need to carefully consider the indications for EN to optimize the quality of AP care.