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Owen R, Wakefield CJ, Roberts JW. Online corrections can occur within movement imagery: An investigation of the motor-cognitive model. Hum Mov Sci 2024; 95:103222. [PMID: 38696913 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2024.103222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
The motor-cognitive model proposes that movement imagery additionally requires conscious monitoring owing to an absence of veridical online sensory feedback. Therefore, it is predicted that there would be a comparatively limited ability for individuals to update or correct movement imagery as they could within execution. To investigate, participants executed and imagined target-directed aiming movements featuring either an unexpected target perturbation (Exp. 1) or removal of visual sensory feedback (Exp. 2). The results of both experiments indicated that the time-course of executed and imagined movements was equally influenced by each of these online visual manipulations. Thus, contrary to some of the tenets of the motor-cognitive model, movement imagery holds the capacity to interpolate online corrections despite the absence of veridical sensory feedback. The further theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Owen
- Liverpool Hope University, School of Health and Sport Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
| | - Caroline J Wakefield
- Liverpool Hope University, School of Health and Sport Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
| | - James W Roberts
- Liverpool John Moores University, Research Institute of Sport & Exercise Sciences (RISES), Brain & Behaviour Research Group, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 5AF, UK.
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Nakamoto H, Hashimoto S, Kamei M, Murata M, Ikudome S, Karakida K, Tanaka Y. Inhibition of Ironic Errors and Facilitation of Overcompensation Errors Under Pressure: An Investigation Including Perceived Weakness. JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY 2024; 46:151-163. [PMID: 38688469 DOI: 10.1123/jsep.2023-0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
The conflicting predictions of ironic process theory and the implicit overcompensation hypothesis have been presented as a framework to explain the characteristics of errors that occur when a certain behavior is prohibited. The former predicts that instructions prohibiting a particular behavior will increase the likelihood of an outcome that should be avoided (ironic error), whereas the latter predicts that the likelihood of an outcome opposite of that to be avoided (overcompensation error) will increase. We examined how these errors, which negatively affect performance, are influenced by pressure and perceived weakness. Participants performed a tennis-stroke task, aiming to hit a ball toward a target zone while avoiding a discouraged zone. The results indicate that pressure decreases the ironic errors but increases the overcompensation errors that occur when a particular behavior is discouraged, while an increase in perceived weakness induces random errors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Nakamoto
- Faculty of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | - Shoya Hashimoto
- Faculty of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | - Mio Kamei
- Faculty of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | - Munenori Murata
- Faculty of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | - Sachi Ikudome
- Faculty of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | | | - Yoshifumi Tanaka
- Department of Health and Sports Sciences, Mukogawa Women's University, Nishinomiya, Japan
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Breault MS, Sacré P, Fitzgerald ZB, Gale JT, Cullen KE, González-Martínez JA, Sarma SV. Internal states as a source of subject-dependent movement variability are represented by large-scale brain networks. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7837. [PMID: 38030611 PMCID: PMC10687170 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43257-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans' ability to adapt and learn relies on reflecting on past performance. These experiences form latent representations called internal states that induce movement variability that improves how we interact with our environment. Our study uncovered temporal dynamics and neural substrates of two states from ten subjects implanted with intracranial depth electrodes while they performed a goal-directed motor task with physical perturbations. We identified two internal states using state-space models: one tracking past errors and the other past perturbations. These states influenced reaction times and speed errors, revealing how subjects strategize from trial history. Using local field potentials from over 100 brain regions, we found large-scale brain networks such as the dorsal attention and default mode network modulate visuospatial attention based on recent performance and environmental feedback. Notably, these networks were more prominent in higher-performing subjects, emphasizing their role in improving motor performance by regulating movement variability through internal states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Macauley Smith Breault
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Pierre Sacré
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, School of Engineering, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Zachary B Fitzgerald
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Kathleen E Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Sridevi V Sarma
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Simmonds PJ, Wakefield CJ, Coyles G, Roberts JW. Enhanced expectancies benefit performance under distraction, but compromise it under stress: Exploring the OPTIMAL theory. Hum Mov Sci 2023; 89:103085. [PMID: 37030071 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2023.103085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023]
Abstract
Motor learning can benefit from practice under enhanced expectancies; that is, the belief one can generate an intended positive outcome. According to the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory, this benefit manifests from a greater coupling between action and its external consequences, which potentially coincides with a more automatic mode of control. The aim of the study was to examine this possibility, and in so doing, understand more about the psycho-motor processes underpinning the influence of expectancies. On Day 1, novice participants practiced a dart-throwing task under enhanced (EE) (n = 11), reduced (RE) (n = 12) or no (control; CTL) (n = 12) expectancies. Enhanced and reduced expectancies were indirectly manipulated by positively reinforcing shots that landed within the large or small circle on the dartboard, respectively. On Day 2, participants transferred to a dual-task (i.e., tone-counting) or stress (i.e., social-comparative threat, false feedback) setting. While there was no evidence of improvement across practice, RE was significantly worse than CTL for the dual-task, but EE was significantly worse than RE and CTL under stress (ps < 0.05). Therefore, the ability of EE to retain performance within the dual-task, but decline under stress, suggests a more automatic mode of control was adopted. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Simmonds
- Liverpool Hope University, Psychology, Action and Learning of Movement (PALM) Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
| | - Caroline J Wakefield
- Liverpool Hope University, Psychology, Action and Learning of Movement (PALM) Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
| | - Ginny Coyles
- Liverpool Hope University, Psychology, Action and Learning of Movement (PALM) Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
| | - James W Roberts
- Liverpool Hope University, Psychology, Action and Learning of Movement (PALM) Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK.
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Testing anxiety's effect on movement planning and correction: Online upper-limb corrections are not completely automatic. Hum Mov Sci 2023; 87:103022. [PMID: 36370619 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2022.103022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Via three experiments, we investigated heightened anxiety's effect on the offline planning and online correction of upper-limb target-directed aiming movements. In Experiment 1, the majority of task trials allowed for the voluntary distribution of offline planning and online correction to achieve task success, while a subset of cursor jump trials necessitated the use of online correction to achieve task success. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated and elaborated Experiment 1 by assessing movement-specific reinvestment propensity and manipulating the self-control resources of participants. This allowed more detailed inference of cognitive resource utilisation to tease apart the effects of conscious processing and distraction-based anxiety mechanisms. For the first time, we demonstrate that: anxiety-induced online-to-offline motor control shifts can be overridden when the need for online correction is necessitated (i.e., in jump trials); anxiety-induced online-to-offline shifts seem to be positively predicted by conscious processing propensity; and optimal spatial efficacy of limb information-based online correction seems to require cognitive resources. We conclude that long-standing definitions of limb information-based online correction require revision, and that both conscious processing and distraction theories appear to play a role in determining the control strategies of anxiety induced upper limb target directed aiming movements.
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Training visual attention improves basketball three-point shot performance under pressure. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-021-00866-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Roberts JW, Lawrence GP, Welsh TN, Wilson MR. Does high state anxiety exacerbate distractor interference? Hum Mov Sci 2021; 76:102773. [PMID: 33636571 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2021.102773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Attentional Control Theory states that anxiety can cause attention to be allocated to irrelevant sources of information by hindering the ability to control attention and focus on the information that matters. In a separate line of inquiry, action-centred views of attention state that non-target distractors involuntarily activate response codes that may cause interference with target-directed movements (distractor interference effect). Due to the proposed negative effects of anxiety on attentional control, we examined whether anxiety could also modulate distractor interference. Participants executed target-directed aiming movements to one of three targets with the potential of a distractor being presented at near or far locations. Distractors were presented at different times with respect to the target presentation in order to explore the excitatory (0, -100 ms) and inhibitory (-850 ms) processing of the distractor. As a broad indication of the effect of anxiety, the analysis of no distractor trials indicated a lower proportion of time and displacement to reach peak velocity under high compared to low anxiety conditions. Meanwhile, the typical excitatory influence of the distractors located near, compared to far, at a short distractor-onset asynchrony was found in movement time and overall response time. However, this distractor excitation was even greater under high compared to low anxiety in the reaction time component of the response. These findings broadly implicate the attentional control perspective, but they further indicate an influence of anxiety on the excitation rather than inhibition of responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Roberts
- Liverpool Hope University, Psychology, Action and Learning of Movement (PALM) Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK.
| | - Gavin P Lawrence
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance, Bangor University, George Building, Bangor LL57 2PZ, UK
| | - Timothy N Welsh
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M52 2W6, Canada; Centre for Motor Control, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M52 2W6, Canada
| | - Mark R Wilson
- University of Exeter, School of Sport and Health Sciences, Heavitree Road, Exeter EX1 2LU, UK
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Performance-related stress mediates the online control and integration of sequential movements. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 208:103105. [PMID: 32485338 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of stress on directing attention within performance have been broadly explained by self-focus and distraction perspectives, where stress causes attention to be drawn internally or toward the sources of worry, respectively. Recent studies that have adopted manual aiming under different levels of stress have illuminated our understanding of the stress-performance framework. The present study seeks to elaborate on this current trend by introducing a sequential task, where the integration of individual movement segments enhances the demands on preparation and control, and thus closely examines the explanatory power of the self-focus and distraction perspectives. This study involved executing aiming movements solely to one-target (1T), or continuing by extending (2TE) and reversing (2TR) the limb to a second target. Participants were instructed to simply execute rapid and accurate movements (low-stress), and additionally provided a socio-comparative stressor (high-stress). While there was no one- (1 T vs. 2TE) or two-target (1T vs. 2TR) advantage, there was a shorter movement time in the first segment of the one-target task that appeared to dissipate when under high-stress. In addition, the high-stress conditions caused shorter reaction and pause times, while the proportion of the sequence time decreased within the pause, but increased within the second segment. Consequently, the overall sequence time failed to differ between low- and high-stress. These findings indicate that the online control of movement is accommodated under high-stress. We suggest these procedures unfold following a primary focus to uphold the performance outcome. Thus, these findings appear to be consistent with the distraction perspective.
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Roberts JW, Wilson MR, Skultety JK, Lyons JL. Examining the effect of state anxiety on compensatory and strategic adjustments in the planning of goal-directed aiming. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 185:33-40. [PMID: 29407243 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 12/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The anxiety-perceptual-motor performance relationship may be enriched by investigations involving discrete manual responses due to the definitive demarcation of planning and control processes, which comprise the early and late portions of movement, respectively. To further examine the explanatory power of self-focus and distraction theories, we explored the potential of anxiety causing changes to movement planning that accommodate for anticipated negative effects in online control. As a result, we posed two hypotheses where anxiety causes performers to initially undershoot the target and enable more time to use visual feedback ("play-it-safe"), or fire a ballistic reach to cover a greater distance without later undertaking online control ("go-for-it"). Participants were tasked with an upper-limb movement to a single target under counter-balanced instructions to execute fast and accurate responses (low/normal anxiety) with non-contingent negative performance feedback (high anxiety). The results indicated that the previously identified negative impact of anxiety in online control was replicated. While anxiety caused a longer displacement to reach peak velocity and greater tendency to overshoot the target, there appeared to be no shift in the attempts to utilise online visual feedback. Thus, the tendency to initially overshoot may manifest from an inefficient auxiliary procedure that manages to uphold overall movement time and response accuracy.
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Cassell VE, Beattie SJ, Lawrence GP. Changing performance pressure between training and competition influences action planning because of a reduction in the efficiency of action execution. ANXIETY STRESS AND COPING 2017; 31:107-120. [PMID: 28945116 DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2017.1373389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Background and objectives Specificity of practice proposes optimal performance is linked to the conditions under which learning occurred. The present study investigated this effect within a pressure context to determine whether offline and/or online control processes develop specificity through the introduction or removal of performance pressure. Methods Forty novices practiced a two-dimensional stimulus-response discrimination task in one of four groups; two control (control-control and anxiety-anxiety) and two experimental (control-anxiety and anxiety-control). In the experimental groups, participants experienced a switch in conditions of pressure both early and late in practice, i.e., practiced in low-pressure and transferred to high-pressure (control-anxiety group) or the reverse of this (anxiety-control group). Results A significant acquisition-to-transfer decrement in performance occurred for both experimental groups. This offers support for a pressure-performance specificity effect because a change in conditions of pressure (regardless if that was an increase or decrease) resulted in performance decrements. Furthermore, the reaction time measure of offline control was affected by the change to a significantly greater extent than the movement time measure of online control. Conclusions Increases in offline control processes was a performance strategy adopted to combat the disruption that pressure caused to the processes associated with adjusting or planning movements online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria E Cassell
- a School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance , Bangor University , Bangor , Gwynedd
| | - Stuart J Beattie
- a School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance , Bangor University , Bangor , Gwynedd
| | - Gavin P Lawrence
- a School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance , Bangor University , Bangor , Gwynedd
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Allsop JE, Lawrence GP, Gray R, Khan MA. The interaction between practice and performance pressure on the planning and control of fast target directed movement. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2017; 81:1004-1019. [PMID: 27535064 PMCID: PMC5533866 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-016-0791-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Pressure to perform often results in decrements to both outcome accuracy and the kinematics of motor skills. Furthermore, this pressure-performance relationship is moderated by the amount of accumulated practice or the experience of the performer. However, the interactive effects of performance pressure and practice on the underlying processes of motor skills are far from clear. Movement execution involves both an offline pre-planning process and an online control process. The present experiment aimed to investigate the interaction between pressure and practice on these two motor control processes. Two groups of participants (control and pressure; N = 12 and 12, respectively) practiced a video aiming amplitude task and were transferred to either a non-pressure (control group) or a pressure condition (pressure group) both early and late in practice. Results revealed similar accuracy and movement kinematics between the control and pressure groups at early transfer. However, at late transfer, the introduction of pressure was associated with increased performance compared to control conditions. Analysis of kinematic variability throughout the movement suggested that the performance increase was due to participants adopting strategies to improve movement planning in response to pressure reducing the effectiveness of the online control system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E Allsop
- Vision and Eye Research Unit (VERU), Postgraduate Medical Institute, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Gavin P Lawrence
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance, Bangor University, George Building, Holyhead Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2PZ, UK.
| | | | - Michael A Khan
- Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Windsor, Windsor, Canada
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