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Li YT, Yeh SL, Huang TR. The cross-race effect in automatic facial expression recognition violates measurement invariance. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1201145. [PMID: 38130968 PMCID: PMC10733503 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1201145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotion has been a subject undergoing intensive research in psychology and cognitive neuroscience over several decades. Recently, more and more studies of emotion have adopted automatic rather than manual methods of facial emotion recognition to analyze images or videos of human faces. Compared to manual methods, these computer-vision-based, automatic methods can help objectively and rapidly analyze a large amount of data. These automatic methods have also been validated and believed to be accurate in their judgments. However, these automatic methods often rely on statistical learning models (e.g., deep neural networks), which are intrinsically inductive and thus suffer from problems of induction. Specifically, the models that were trained primarily on Western faces may not generalize well to accurately judge Eastern faces, which can then jeopardize the measurement invariance of emotions in cross-cultural studies. To demonstrate such a possibility, the present study carries out a cross-racial validation of two popular facial emotion recognition systems-FaceReader and DeepFace-using two Western and two Eastern face datasets. Although both systems could achieve overall high accuracies in the judgments of emotion category on the Western datasets, they performed relatively poorly on the Eastern datasets, especially in recognition of negative emotions. While these results caution the use of these automatic methods of emotion recognition on non-Western faces, the results also suggest that the measurements of happiness outputted by these automatic methods are accurate and invariant across races and hence can still be utilized for cross-cultural studies of positive psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Ting Li
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Su-Ling Yeh
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Neurobiology and Cognitive Science Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Center for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Robotics, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Ren Huang
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Neurobiology and Cognitive Science Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Center for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Robotics, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
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Li L, Tang W, Yang H, Xue C. Classification of User Emotional Experiences on B2C Websites Utilizing Infrared Thermal Imaging. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7991. [PMID: 37766045 PMCID: PMC10534612 DOI: 10.3390/s23187991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
The acquisition of physiological signals for analyzing emotional experiences has been intrusive, and potentially yields inaccurate results. This study employed infrared thermal images (IRTIs), a noninvasive technique, to classify user emotional experiences while interacting with business-to-consumer (B2C) websites. By manipulating the usability and aesthetics of B2C websites, the facial thermal images of 24 participants were captured as they engaged with the different websites. Machine learning techniques were leveraged to classify their emotional experiences, with participants' self-assessments serving as the ground truth. The findings revealed significant fluctuations in emotional valence, while the participants' arousal levels remained consistent, enabling the categorization of emotional experiences into positive and negative states. The support vector machine (SVM) model performed well in distinguishing between baseline and emotional experiences. Furthermore, this study identified key regions of interest (ROIs) and effective classification features in machine learning. These findings not only established a significant connection between user emotional experiences and IRTIs but also broadened the research perspective on the utility of IRTIs in the field of emotion analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanxin Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Southeast University Road, Nanjing 211189, China; (L.L.); (W.T.)
| | - Wenzhe Tang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Southeast University Road, Nanjing 211189, China; (L.L.); (W.T.)
| | - Han Yang
- School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Southeast University Road, Nanjing 211189, China;
| | - Chengqi Xue
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Southeast University Road, Nanjing 211189, China; (L.L.); (W.T.)
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Höfling TTA, Alpers GW. Automatic facial coding predicts self-report of emotion, advertisement and brand effects elicited by video commercials. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1125983. [PMID: 37205049 PMCID: PMC10185761 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1125983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Consumers' emotional responses are the prime target for marketing commercials. Facial expressions provide information about a person's emotional state and technological advances have enabled machines to automatically decode them. Method With automatic facial coding we investigated the relationships between facial movements (i.e., action unit activity) and self-report of commercials advertisement emotion, advertisement and brand effects. Therefore, we recorded and analyzed the facial responses of 219 participants while they watched a broad array of video commercials. Results Facial expressions significantly predicted self-report of emotion as well as advertisement and brand effects. Interestingly, facial expressions had incremental value beyond self-report of emotion in the prediction of advertisement and brand effects. Hence, automatic facial coding appears to be useful as a non-verbal quantification of advertisement effects beyond self-report. Discussion This is the first study to measure a broad spectrum of automatically scored facial responses to video commercials. Automatic facial coding is a promising non-invasive and non-verbal method to measure emotional responses in marketing.
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FEDA: Fine-grained emotion difference analysis for facial expression recognition. Biomed Signal Process Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Sustainable Distance Online Educational Process for Dental Students during COVID-19 Pandemic. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19159470. [PMID: 35954826 PMCID: PMC9368722 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19159470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we evaluated the perception of distance online learning in undergraduate dental students in two different European countries during the second lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic to explore sustainable undergraduate educational and examination e-learning forms. Dental students from Dental school of Athens, National and Kapodistrian university of Athens (N1_3rd preclinical year = 131, N2_4th clinical year = 119) and Dental school of Copenhagen (3rd preclinical year N3 = 85) completed the mixed-designed Dental e-Learning process Questionnaire (DeLQ) distributed in a google form. Responses to closed-ended questions were collected on a five-point Likert scale. Descriptive statistics were applied, and non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis tests were used to examine student groups. N1 (90% strongly agree) students reported that “e-learning is a suitable education method for theory in dentistry” at a significant level and more often than N2 (43% strongly disagree). N1 and N2 students strongly agreed that they preferred face-to-face teaching rather than distance e-learning. A relatively low number of N1 (31%) students believed that e-learning prepares them sufficiently for their practical training while none of the (0%) N2 cohort agreed. A low percentage of students in both years (N1 = 31%, N2 = 23%) believed that e-learning prepared them for their exams. Additionally, N1 = 60% and N2 = 66% preferred hybrid learning. Only 26% (N1) and 19.5% (N2) desired e-learning to continue after the COVID-19 pandemic. Nearly half of the participants believed the online exam model to be unreliable (N1 = 49%, N2 = 43%). Overall, students considered distance e-learning as an educational method applicable only to theoretical lessons. However, the lack of physical communication and interaction in distance learning led students to prefer a blended method. Students of the two faculties seemed to agree on many points, but there were also specific differences attributable to the differences in the programs and educational culture of the two countries.
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Hartmann TJ, Hartmann JBJ, Friebe-Hoffmann U, Lato C, Janni W, Lato K. Novel Method for Three-Dimensional Facial Expression Recognition Using Self-Normalizing Neural Networks and Mobile Devices. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 2022; 82:955-969. [PMID: 36110895 PMCID: PMC9470291 DOI: 10.1055/a-1866-2943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction To date, most ways to perform facial expression recognition rely on two-dimensional images, advanced approaches with three-dimensional data exist. These however demand stationary apparatuses and thus lack portability and possibilities to scale deployment. As human emotions, intent and even diseases may condense in distinct facial expressions or changes therein, the need for a portable yet capable solution is signified. Due to the superior informative value of three-dimensional data on facial morphology and because certain syndromes find expression in specific facial dysmorphisms, a solution should allow portable acquisition of true three-dimensional facial scans in real time. In this study we present a novel solution for the three-dimensional acquisition of facial geometry data and the recognition of facial expressions from it. The new technology presented here only requires the use of a smartphone or tablet with an integrated TrueDepth camera and enables real-time acquisition of the geometry and its categorization into distinct facial expressions. Material and Methods Our approach consisted of two parts: First, training data was acquired by asking a collective of 226 medical students to adopt defined facial expressions while their current facial morphology was captured by our specially developed app running on iPads, placed in front of the students. In total, the list of the facial expressions to be shown by the participants consisted of "disappointed", "stressed", "happy", "sad" and "surprised". Second, the data were used to train a self-normalizing neural network. A set of all factors describing the current facial expression at a time is referred to as "snapshot". Results In total, over half a million snapshots were recorded in the study. Ultimately, the network achieved an overall accuracy of 80.54% after 400 epochs of training. In test, an overall accuracy of 81.15% was determined. Recall values differed by the category of a snapshot and ranged from 74.79% for "stressed" to 87.61% for "happy". Precision showed similar results, whereas "sad" achieved the lowest value at 77.48% and "surprised" the highest at 86.87%. Conclusions With the present work it can be demonstrated that respectable results can be achieved even when using data sets with some challenges. Through various measures, already incorporated into an optimized version of our app, it is to be expected that the training results can be significantly improved and made more precise in the future. Currently a follow-up study with the new version of our app that encompasses the suggested alterations and adaptions, is being conducted. We aim to build a large and open database of facial scans not only for facial expression recognition but to perform disease recognition and to monitor diseases' treatment progresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Johannes Hartmann
- 155913Universitäts-Hautklinik Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,266771Universitätsfrauenklinik Ulm, Ulm, Germany,Korrespondenzadresse Tim Johannes Hartmann 155913Universitäts-Hautklinik TübingenLiebermeisterstraße
2572076 TübingenGermany
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Monteith S, Glenn T, Geddes J, Whybrow PC, Bauer M. Commercial Use of Emotion Artificial Intelligence (AI): Implications for Psychiatry. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2022; 24:203-211. [PMID: 35212918 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-022-01330-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Emotion artificial intelligence (AI) is technology for emotion detection and recognition. Emotion AI is expanding rapidly in commercial and government settings outside of medicine, and will increasingly become a routine part of daily life. The goal of this narrative review is to increase awareness both of the widespread use of emotion AI, and of the concerns with commercial use of emotion AI in relation to people with mental illness. RECENT FINDINGS This paper discusses emotion AI fundamentals, a general overview of commercial emotion AI outside of medicine, and examples of the use of emotion AI in employee hiring and workplace monitoring. The successful re-integration of patients with mental illness into society must recognize the increasing commercial use of emotion AI. There are concerns that commercial use of emotion AI will increase stigma and discrimination, and have negative consequences in daily life for people with mental illness. Commercial emotion AI algorithm predictions about mental illness should not be treated as medical fact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Monteith
- Michigan State University College of Human Medicine, Traverse City Campus, 1400 Medical Campus Drive, Traverse City, MI, 49684, USA.
| | - Tasha Glenn
- ChronoRecord Association, Fullerton, CA, USA
| | - John Geddes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Peter C Whybrow
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael Bauer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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Lange EB, Fünderich J, Grimm H. Multisensory integration of musical emotion perception in singing. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2022; 86:2099-2114. [PMID: 35001181 PMCID: PMC9470688 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01637-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated how visual and auditory information contributes to emotion communication during singing. Classically trained singers applied two different facial expressions (expressive/suppressed) to pieces from their song and opera repertoire. Recordings of the singers were evaluated by laypersons or experts, presented to them in three different modes: auditory, visual, and audio–visual. A manipulation check confirmed that the singers succeeded in manipulating the face while keeping the sound highly expressive. Analyses focused on whether the visual difference or the auditory concordance between the two versions determined perception of the audio–visual stimuli. When evaluating expressive intensity or emotional content a clear effect of visual dominance showed. Experts made more use of the visual cues than laypersons. Consistency measures between uni-modal and multimodal presentations did not explain the visual dominance. The evaluation of seriousness was applied as a control. The uni-modal stimuli were rated as expected, but multisensory evaluations converged without visual dominance. Our study demonstrates that long-term knowledge and task context affect multisensory integration. Even though singers’ orofacial movements are dominated by sound production, their facial expressions can communicate emotions composed into the music, and observes do not rely on audio information instead. Studies such as ours are important to understand multisensory integration in applied settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke B Lange
- Department of Music, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics (MPIEA), Grüneburgweg 14, 60322, Frankfurt/M., Germany.
| | - Jens Fünderich
- Department of Music, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics (MPIEA), Grüneburgweg 14, 60322, Frankfurt/M., Germany.,University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Hartmut Grimm
- Department of Music, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics (MPIEA), Grüneburgweg 14, 60322, Frankfurt/M., Germany
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