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van Gisbergen MW, Cebula M, Zhang J, Ottosson-Wadlund A, Dubois L, Lambin P, Tew KD, Townsend DM, Haenen GRMM, Drittij-Reijnders MJ, Saneyoshi H, Araki M, Shishido Y, Ito Y, Arnér ESJ, Abe H, Morgenstern R, Johansson K. Chemical Reactivity Window Determines Prodrug Efficiency toward Glutathione Transferase Overexpressing Cancer Cells. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:2010-25. [PMID: 27093577 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are often overexpressed in tumors and frequently correlated to bad prognosis and resistance against a number of different anticancer drugs. To selectively target these cells and to overcome this resistance we previously have developed prodrugs that are derivatives of existing anticancer drugs (e.g., doxorubicin) incorporating a sulfonamide moiety. When cleaved by GSTs, the prodrug releases the cytostatic moiety predominantly in GST overexpressing cells, thus sparing normal cells with moderate enzyme levels. By modifying the sulfonamide it is possible to control the rate of drug release and specifically target different GSTs. Here we show that the newly synthesized compounds, 4-acetyl-2-nitro-benzenesulfonyl etoposide (ANS-etoposide) and 4-acetyl-2-nitro-benzenesulfonyl doxorubicin (ANS-DOX), function as prodrugs for GSTA1 and MGST1 overexpressing cell lines. ANS-DOX, in particular, showed a desirable cytotoxic profile by inducing toxicity and DNA damage in a GST-dependent manner compared to control cells. Its moderate conversion of 500 nmol/min/mg, as catalyzed by GSTA1, seems hereby essential since the more reactive 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonyl doxorubicin (DNS-DOX) (14000 nmol/min/mg) did not display a preference for GSTA1 overexpressing cells. DNS-DOX, however, effectively killed GSTP1 (20 nmol/min/mg) and MGST1 (450 nmol/min/mg) overexpressing cells as did the less reactive 4-mononitrobenzenesulfonyl doxorubicin (MNS-DOX) in a MGST1-dependent manner (1.5 nmol/min/mg) as shown previously. Furthermore, we show that the mechanism of these prodrugs involves a reduction in GSH levels as well as inhibition of the redox regulatory enzyme thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1) by virtue of their electrophilic sulfonamide moiety. TrxR1 is upregulated in many tumors and associated with resistance to chemotherapy and poor patient prognosis. Additionally, the prodrugs potentially acted as a general shuttle system for DOX, by overcoming resistance mechanisms in cells. Here we propose that GST-dependent prodrugs require a conversion rate "window" in order to selectively target GST overexpressing cells, while limiting their effects on normal cells. Prodrugs are furthermore a suitable system to specifically target GSTs and to overcome various drug resistance mechanisms that apply to the parental drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marike W van Gisbergen
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Biochemical Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet , SE 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Radiation Oncology (MaastRO Lab), GROW-School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center , Universiteitssingel 50/23, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus Cebula
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Biochemical Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet , SE 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jie Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Biochemical Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet , SE 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.,Departments of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina 29425, United States
| | - Astrid Ottosson-Wadlund
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Biochemical Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet , SE 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ludwig Dubois
- Department of Radiation Oncology (MaastRO Lab), GROW-School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center , Universiteitssingel 50/23, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Philippe Lambin
- Department of Radiation Oncology (MaastRO Lab), GROW-School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center , Universiteitssingel 50/23, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Kenneth D Tew
- Departments of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina 29425, United States
| | - Danyelle M Townsend
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina 29425, United States
| | - Guido R M M Haenen
- Department of Toxicology, NUTRIM-School for Nutrition, Toxicology, and Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center , Universiteitssingel 50/23, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marie-José Drittij-Reijnders
- Department of Toxicology, NUTRIM-School for Nutrition, Toxicology, and Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center , Universiteitssingel 50/23, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Hisao Saneyoshi
- Nano Medical Engineering Laboratory, Discovery Research Institute, RIKEN 2-1 , Hirosawa, Wako-Shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Mika Araki
- Nano Medical Engineering Laboratory, Discovery Research Institute, RIKEN 2-1 , Hirosawa, Wako-Shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yuko Shishido
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ito
- Nano Medical Engineering Laboratory, Discovery Research Institute, RIKEN 2-1 , Hirosawa, Wako-Shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Elias S J Arnér
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hiroshi Abe
- Nano Medical Engineering Laboratory, Discovery Research Institute, RIKEN 2-1 , Hirosawa, Wako-Shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.,Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Ralf Morgenstern
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Biochemical Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet , SE 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katarina Johansson
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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Sonabend AM, Carminucci AS, Amendolara B, Bansal M, Leung R, Lei L, Realubit R, Li H, Karan C, Yun J, Showers C, Rothcock R, O J, Califano A, Canoll P, Bruce JN. Convection-enhanced delivery of etoposide is effective against murine proneural glioblastoma. Neuro Oncol 2014; 16:1210-9. [PMID: 24637229 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/nou026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma subtypes have been defined based on transcriptional profiling, yet personalized care based on molecular classification remains unexploited. Topoisomerase II (TOP2) contributes to the transcriptional signature of the proneural glioma subtype. Thus, we targeted TOP2 pharmacologically with etoposide in proneural glioma models. METHODS TOP2 gene expression was evaluated in mouse platelet derived growth factor (PDGF)(+)phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)(-/-)p53(-/-) and PDGF(+)PTEN(-/-) proneural gliomas and cell lines, as well as human glioblastoma from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Correlation between TOP2 transcript levels and etoposide susceptibility was investigated in 139 human cancer cell lines from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia public dataset and in mouse proneural glioma cell lines. Convection-enhanced delivery (CED) of etoposide was tested on cell-based PDGF(+)PTEN(-/-)p53(-/-) and retroviral-based PDGF(+)PTEN(-/-) mouse proneural glioma models. RESULTS TOP2 expression was significantly higher in human proneural glioblastoma and in mouse proneural tumors at early as well as late stages of development compared with normal brain. TOP2B transcript correlated with susceptibility to etoposide in mouse proneural cell lines and in 139 human cancer cell lines from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia. Intracranial etoposide CED treatment (680 μM) was well tolerated by mice and led to a significant survival benefit in the PDGF(+)PTEN(-/-)p53(-/-) glioma model. Moreover, etoposide CED treatment at 80 μM but not 4 μM led to a significant survival advantage in the PDGF(+)PTEN(-/-) glioma model. CONCLUSIONS TOP2 is highly expressed in proneural gliomas, rendering its pharmacological targeting by intratumoral administration of etoposide by CED effective on murine proneural gliomas. We provide evidence supporting clinical testing of CED of etoposide with a molecular-based patient selection approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Sonabend
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Arthur S Carminucci
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Benjamin Amendolara
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Mukesh Bansal
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Richard Leung
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Liang Lei
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Ronald Realubit
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Hai Li
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Charles Karan
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Jonathan Yun
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Christopher Showers
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Robert Rothcock
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Jane O
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Andrea Califano
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Peter Canoll
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
| | - Jeffrey N Bruce
- Gabriele Bartoli Brain Tumor Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.M.S., A.S.C., B.A., R.L., J.Y., C.S., R.R., J.O, P.C., J.N.B.); Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (M.B., A.C.); Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Irving Research Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (L.L.); High Throughput Screening Center, Columbia University Medical Center Judith P. Sulzberger Genome Center, New York, New York (R.R., H.L., C.K.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York (A.C.); Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.); Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, New York (A.C.)
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